Introduction to Environmental Geology
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1 Introduction to Environmental Geology Edward A. Keller University of California, Santa Barbara Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam CapeTown Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Säo Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
2 BrjefContents Part Jl Foundations of Environmental Geology i 1 Philosophy and Fundamental Concepts 2 2 Internal Structureof Earth and PlateTectonics 40 3 Minerals and Rocks 72 4 Ecology and Geology 110 Part 2 Earth Processes and Natural Hazards Introduction to Natural Hazards Earthquakes Tsunami Volcanic Activity Riversand Flooding Slope Processes, Landslides, and Subsidence Coastal Processes Impactof Extraterrestrial Objects 402 ) Resources and Pollution Water Resources Water Pollution Mineral Resources and the Environment Energy Resources Soils and Environment 586 Environmental Management, Global Perspective, and Society Global ClimateChange Geology, Society, and the Future 662
3 Contents Preface ix Part One Foundations of Environmental Geology i Ji Philosophy and Fundamental Concepts 2 Case History: Caribbean Island of Hispaniola: Story of History, People, Environmental Damage, and Earthquake Introduction to Environmental Geology 7 A Closer Look: Earth's Place in Space Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Geology 12 Concept One: Human Population Growth 12 ConceptTwo:Sustainability 17 Concept Three: Earth as a System 19 Case History: The Aral Sea: The Death of a Sea 20 A Closer Look: The Gaia Hypothesis 24 Concept Four: Hazardous Earth Processes 25 Concept Five: Scientifk Knowledge and Values 26 A Closer Look: Knowledge, Imagination, and Critical Thinking 28 A Closer Look: Easter Island: A Complex Problem to Understand 34 J=\ Internal Structure of Earth and Plate Tectonics 40 Case History: Two Cities on a Plate Boundary Internal Structure of Earth How We Know About the Internal Structure of Earth Plate Tectonics 46 A Closer Look: The Wonder of Mountains A Detailed Lookat Seafloor Spreading Pangaea and Present Continents How Plate Tectonics Works: Putting ItTogether Plate Tectonics and Environmental Geology 65 sj) Minerals and Rocks 72 Case History: The Asbestos Controversy Minerals Important Rock-Forming Minerals 79 A Closer Look: Weathering 82 A Closer Look: Clay RockCycle Three Rock Laws Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks Rock Strength and Deformation 100 Case History: St. Francis Dam RockStructures 102 *of Ecology and Geology 110 Case History: Endangered Steelhead Trout in Southern California: It's All About Geology Ecology forgeologists: Basic Terms Geology and Biodiversity 115 A Closer Look: Seawalls and Biodiversity Ecological Restoration 126 A Closer Look: Restoration of the Kissimmee River 127 A Closer Look: Restoration of the Florida Everglades 129 A Closer Look: Coastal Sand Dune Restoration at Pocket Beaches: University of California, Santa Barbara 131 IV
4 Contents 6.10 Effectsof Earthquakes Earthquake Risk and Earthquake Prediction Toward Earthquake Prediction Sequence of Earthquakes in Turkey: Can One Earthquake Set up Another? The Response to Earthquake Hazards 208 A Closer Look: Earthquake Hazard Evaluation: Ground Motion and Slip Rate 209 A Closer Look: The Alaska Earthquake of 2002 and the Value of Estimating Potential Ground Rupture 213 PartTwo Earth Processes and Natural Hazards 137 Zj) Introduction to Natural Hazards Case History. Hurricane Katrina, the Most Serious Natural Catastrophe in U.S. History Hazards, Disasters, and Natural Processes 142 A Closer Look: The Magnitude-Frequency Concept Evaluating Hazards: History, Linkages, Disaster Prediction, and Risk Assessment 149 A Closer Look: Scientists, Hazards, and the Media The Human Responseto Hazards Global Climate and Hazards 160 m 5.5 Population Increase, Land Use Change, and Natural Hazards 160 A Closer Look: Nevado del Ruiz: A Story of People, Land Use, and Volcanic Eruption 162 Earthquakes m Case History: Italian Earthquake of 2009 and Haiti Earthquake of Introduction to Earthquakes Earthquake Magnitude Earthquake Intensity Plate Boundary Earthquakes Intraplate Earthquakes Earthquake Processes 179 Case History: Northridge, Earthquake Shaking Earthquake Cycle Earthquakes Caused by Human Activity 197 Chapte ter't' Tsunami 222 Case History: Indonesian Tsunami Introduction Regionsat Risk Effects of Tsunamis and Linkages to Other Natural Hazards Minimizing the Tsunami Hazard Perception and Personal Adjustment to Tsunami Hazard 243 <Q) Volcanic Activity 248 Case History: Mt. Unzen, Introduction to Volcanic Hazards 8.2 Volcanism and Volcanoes VolcanoTypes 253 A Closer Look: How Magma Forms VolcanoOrigins Volcanic Features Volcanic Hazards TwoCaseHistories Forecasting Volcanic Activity Adjustment to and Perception of the Volcanic Hazard 282 Rivers and Flooding 286 Case History: Pakistan Floods of 2010 with Implications for the United States Rivers: Historical Use Streams and Rivers Sediment in Rivers River Velocity, Discharge, Erosion, and Sediment Deposition 292
5 VI Contents 9.5 Effectsof Land Use Changes 294 A Closer Look: History of a River Channel Patterns and Floodplain Formation River Flooding 298 A Closer Look: Magnitude and Frequency of Floods Urbanization and Flooding The Nature and Extent of Flood Hazards Adjustments to Flood Hazards 307 A Closer Look: Mississippi River Flooding, 1973 and Perception of Flooding 320 J Slope Processes, Landslides, and Subsidence 326 Case History: La Conchita Landslide of Introduction to Landslides Slope Processes and Typesof Landslides Slope Stability 333 A Closer Look: Calculating a Factor of Safety for a Simple Landslide 335 _ü< ~i Impact of Extraterrestrial Objects Case History: The Tunguska Event Earth's Place in Space Aerial Bursts and Impacts Mass Extinctions 414 A Closer Look: Possible Extraterrestrial Impact 12,900 Years Ago Minimizing the Impact Hazard 421 A Closer Look: Near-Earth Objects A Closer Look: Translation Südes Along Bedding Planes 337 Case History: Vaiont Dam Human Use and Landslides Minimizing the Landslide Hazard Snow Avalanches Subsidence Perception ofthe Landslide Hazard Coastal Processes 362 Case History: The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Controversy Introduction to Coastal Hazards Coastal Processes Coastal Erosion 372 A Closer Look: Beach Budget Coastal Hazards and Engineering Structures 376 A Closer Look: Measuring Coastal Change Human Activity and Coastal Erosion: Some Examples 382 A Closer Look: Coastal Erosion at Pointe du Hoc, France Tropical Cyclones Perception of and Adjustment to Coastal Hazards 394 A Closer Look: E-Lines and E-Zones 397 Resources and Pollution JiJ) Water Resources 428 Case History: Long Island, New York Water: A Brief Global Perspective Surface Water Groundwater Interactions Between Surface Water and Groundwater Desalination Water Use 445 Case History: The Edwards Aquifer, Texas Water Resource in Conflict Water Management in the Future 453 A Closer Look: Management ofthe Colorado River Water and Ecosystems 458 A Closer Look: Wetlands Emerging Global Water Shortages 460
6 Contents VII Water Pollution 464 Case History: North Carolina's Bay of Pigs An Overviewof Water Pollution Selected Water Pollutants Surface-Water Pollution and Treatment 480 A Closer Look: Acid Mine Drainage Groundwater Pollution and Treatment Water-Quality Standards Wastewater Treatment 489 A Closer Look: Boston Harbor: Cleaning Up a National Treasure Federal Legislation What Can Be Done to Reduce Effects of Water Pollution? 497 Mineral Resources and the Environment soo Case History: Mine Near Golden, Colorado, Is Transformed intoagoifcourse Mineralsand Human Use Geology of Mineral Resources 506 A Closer Look: Plate Tectonics and Minerals Environmental Impact of Mineral Development 520 A Closer Look: Mining and Toxicity 525 A Closer Look: Homestake Mine, South Dakota Recycling Mineral Resources Mineralsand Sustainability 530 Energy Resources 534 Case History: Energy Transitions from Approximately 1800toPresent Worry Over Energy Sources is Nothing New: Energy Shocks Past and Present Peak Oil: When Will It Occur and What Is Its Importance? Energy Supply and Energy Demand Fossil Fuels 541 A Closer Look: Energy Units 542 A Closer Look: Coal Sludge in the Appalachian Mountains Future of Oil Fossil Fuel and Acid Rain Nuclear Energy 561 A Closer Look: Radioactivity Geothermal Energy Renewable Energy Sources Conservation, Efficiency, and Cogeneration Energy Policyfor the Future 582 Soils and Environment sse Case History: Times Beach, Missouri Introduction to Soils Soil Profiles Soil Properties Soil Fertility Water in Soil Soil Classification Engineering Properties of Soils Rates of Soil Erosion 602 A Closer Look: The Universal Soii Löss Equation Sediment Pollution 603 Case History: Reduction of Sediment Pollution, Maryland Land Use and Environmental Problems of Soils Soil Pollution Soil Surveys and Land Use Planning 610 Environmental Management, Global Perspective, and Society eis 11 (Q) Global Climate Change 616 Case History: What Does Our Recent History Teil Us About Potential Consequences of Global Warming? Global Change and Earth Systems Science: An Overview Earth's Climate and Atmosphere The Greenhouse Effect How WeStudy Past Climate Change Global Warming Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 638 A Closer Look: Desertifkation 647 A Closer Look: El Nino Coupling of Global Change Processes: Ozone Depletion and Global Warming 656 A Closer Look: Abrupt Climate Change 657
7 viii Contents 19.4 Waste Management and Geology 680 A Closer Look: Love Canal Environmental Analysis 693 Appendix A Minerals A-2 Appendix B Rocks B-2 Jl j) Geology, Society, and the Future 662 Case History: Radon Gas: The Stanley Watras Story Introduction Geology and Environmental Health 664 A Closer Look: Lead in the Environment Air Pollution: Introduction and Geologie Perspective 668 A Closer Look: Radon Gas 669 AppendixC Maps and Related Topics C-1 Appendix D How Geologists Determine Geologie Time D-2 Appendix E Darcy's Law E-1 Glossary G-i References R-i Index i-i
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