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1 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: PROLOGUE The Local Environment... 1 Observation, Inference, Classification Properties of the Environment... 3 Measurement, Percent Deviation From Accepted Value Density... 6 Density of Matter, Density and Phases of Matter, Effect of Temperature and Pressure on the Density of Gases The Nature of Change Characteristics of Change, Frames of Reference, Rate of Change, Cyclic Change, Predicting Change, Energy and Change Environmental Equilibrium Equilibrium, Environmental Pollution CHAPTER 2: MEASURING EARTH Models Laboratory Models, Mental Models Size of Earth Earth Dimensions, Earthʼs Structure Determining Positions on Earth Coordinate Systems, Latitude, Measuring Latitude, Longitude, Measuring Longitude, Earth Rotation and Time Mapping Fields Isolines, Gradient Using Topographic Maps Contour Maps, Map Features CHAPTER 3: MINERALS AND ROCKS Minerals Mineral Characteristics, Distinguishing Characteristics of Minerals, The Formation of Minerals Rocks Relation to Minerals, Types of Rocks Igneous Rocks Formation of Igneous Rocks, Features of Igneous Rocks, Structure of Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Compression and Cementation, Chemical Processes, Biological Processes, Features of Sedimentary Rocks, Inferred Characteristics of Rock Types Metamorphic Rocks Formation of Metamorphic Rocks, Parent Material, Types of Metamorphism The Rock Cycle Transition Zones, Rock Composition Mineral Conservation... 70

2 CHAPTER 4: THE DYNAMIC CRUST Earthʼs Crust and Interior Earthquake and Volcanic Distribution, Solid and Liquid Zones, Interior Composition Earthquakes Earthquake Waves, Seismograms, Locating the Epicenter of an Earthquake, Velocity of Earthquake Waves, Earthquake Strength, Earthquake Damage, Volcanic Damage Evidence for Crustal Movement Major Crustal Changes, Zones of Crustal Activity, Theories of Crustal Change, Plate Movements, Fact or Theory?, Plate Boundaries, Geosynclines, Crustal Thickness, Crustal Composition, Magnetic Poles, Ocean-Floor Spreading, Ages of Igneous Rocks, Reversal of Magnetic Polarity, Minor Crustal Changes CHAPTER 5: SECTION 1 - SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDSCAPES WATER AND THE GROUND The Water Cycle Ground Water Infiltration, Permeability, Porosity, Water Retained by Particles, Capillarity Surface Water Runoff Weathering Weathering Process, Weathering Types, Climate and Weathering, Weathering Rates Soils Soil Formation, Soil Solution Erosion Evidence of Erosion, Types of Sediment, Factors Affecting Transportation, Gravity, Running Water and Erosion, Wind and Ice Erosion, Effects of Erosional Agents, Effects of Humans on Erosion Deposition Factors Affecting Deposition An Erosional-Depositional System Energy Relationships in Erosional-Depositional Systems, Dominant Processes in an Erosional-Depositional System, Life History of a Stream, Erosional-Depositional Interfaces, Dynamic Equilibrium of a Stream, Erosional Depositional Changes CHAPTER 5: SECTION 2 - SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDSCAPES OCEANS - GLACIERS - ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES Ocean Currents and Wave Action Introduction to Oceans Ocean Floor Activity Ocean Currents Erosion and Deposition By Wave Action Waves, Beaches, Longshore Drift, Coast and Coastal Features

3 Glacial Erosion and Deposition What are Glaciers? Glacial Erosion Glacial Deposition The Glacial History of New York State Glaciers, Landscape, and the Economy of New York State Wind Action Erosional Features Sand Dunes Living in Balance With Our Natural Environment Mass Movement Landscape Development and Environmental Change Landscape Characteristics Landscape Observations and Measurements, Relationship of Characteristics Landscape Development Uplifting and Leveling Forces, Climate, Bedrock, Time, Dynamic Equilibrium, Human Activities CHAPTER 6: EARTHʼS HISTORY Geologic Events Sequence of Geologic Events, Evidence of Events Correlation Techniques Continuity of Rock and Correlation, Similarity of Rock and Correlation, Fossil Evidence and Correlation, Volcanic Time Markers and Correlation, Anomalies to Correlation Determining Geologic Ages Fossil Evidence, Scale of Geologic Time, Erosional Record, Geologic History of an Area Radioactive Decay Decay Rates, Half-life, Decay Products Ratios The History and Evolution of Earthʼs Atmosphere The Fossil Record Variety of Life Forms, Evolutionary Development CHAPTER 7: STUDY OF THE ATMOSPHERE... Atmospheric Energy Electromagnetic Energy Properties of Electromagnetic Energy, Solar Energy, Matter and Electromagnetic Energy, Earth Energy Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere Convection, Conduction, Radiation

4 Energy Transformation Conservation of Energy, Kinetic and Potential Energy, Friction and Energy Transformation, Wavelength Reradiation Heat and Temperature Temperature, Temperature Scales, Heat, Calories, Specific Heat, Heat Gain or Loss Heat Energy and Phase Changes Latent Heat, Latent Heat Loss or Gain During Phase Changes, Water and Latent Heat Atmospheric Relationships Temperature Variations, Moisture Variations, Relative Humidity, Determining Dewpoint Temperature, Determining Dewpoint Temperature With Chart, Determining Relative Humidity With Chart, Pressure Variations, Moisture and Energy Input, Vapor Pressure, Factors Affecting the Rate of Evaporation, Saturation Vapor Pressure, Other Energy Inputs, Air Movement, Local Breezes, Planetary Convection Cells, Planetary Winds, Jet Streams, Atmospheric Transparency, Other Variables Clouds and Precipitation Precipitation Moisture and Energy Transfer Adiabatic Changes in Temperature Forecasting the Weather Weather Maps and Forecasting Station Model, Air-mass Characteristics, Source Regions, Air-mass Tracks, Cyclones and Anticyclones, Fronts, Mid-latitude Cyclones Hurricanes and Tornadoes Hurricane Safety, Key Hurricane Alerts, Hurricane Safety Procedures, Tornado Safety CHAPTER 8: CLIMATES... Water Cycle and Climate Insolation and Earthʼs Surface Insolation, Intensity of Insolation Factors Affecting Insolation Angle of Insolation, Angle of Insolation and Temperature, Time of Day and Intensity of Insolation, Earthʼs Shape and Intensity of Insolation, Seasons and Intensity of Insolation, Latitude and Intensity of Insolation, Duration of Insolation, Duration of Insolation and Temperature, Temperature Changes and Radiative Balance, Maximum and Minimum Temperatures Radiation and the Atmosphere Layers of the Atmosphere, The Atmosphere and Insolation, Land and Water Surfaces Terrestrial Radiation The Greenhouse Effect, Radiative Balance Versus Time The Water Budget Climate and the Water Budget, Stream Discharge and the Water Budget

5 Factors Affecting Climate Patterns Latitude and Climate, Elevation and Climate, Large Bodies of Water and Climate, Ocean Currents and Climate, Mountain Barriers and Climate, Wind Belts and Climate, Storm Tracks Seasonal Wind Patterns Monsoons, El Niño and La Niña CHAPTER 9: EARTH IN SPACE AND BEYOND Astronomy Earth in the Universe Sunspots The Solar System Formation of Solar System, Terrestrial and Jovian Planets Earth and the Nearby Planets Temperature, Water, Atmosphere Modern Telescopes The Future Space Objects Asteroids, Comets, Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites, Impact Events, Impact Craters Origin and Fate of the Universe Doppler Effect Deep Space Phenomena Comparing Temperature, Color and Luminosity Celestial Observations Celestial Sphere, Star Paths Constellations Star Shifts, Planetary Motions Models to Explain Celestial Motions Geocentric Model, Heliocentric Model Orbital Forces Modern Celestial Model, Orbital Geometry, Gravitation Earthʼs Rotation Evidence of Earthʼs Rotation, Apparent Diameter, Motions of the Sun Time and Earth Motions Apparent Solar Day, Mean Solar Day Moon and its Effects Moon Motions, Tides, Phases of the Moon, Eclipses

6 CHAPTER 10: ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS Interdependence of Earthʼs Living and Non-Living Systems Pollution, Land Pollution Pollution of Earthʼs Water Sources of Water Pollutants, Types of Pollutants, Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria, Eutrophication, Concentration of Pollutants, Long-range Effects Air Pollution Health Problems, Pollution on a Global Scale, Acid Rain, Ozone Depletion, Global Warming, Population Growth Living in Balance With Our Natural Environment Technology, Conservation, The Future EARTH SCIENCE REFERENCE TABLES GLOSSARY INDEX REGENTS EXAMINATIONS

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