Using GIS for Citizen Science Research

Transcription

1 Erin Harrington NRS 509 Final Project Using GIS for Citizen Science Research The concept of citizen science has existed since the beginning of the 20 th century, but it has not been until the last few decades of our history that Citizen Science has been officially named and studied (Bonney et al. 2009, Shirk et al. 2012a, Benson 2017). Researchers have begun to take on the challenge of categorizing, qualifying, and assessing citizen science data, but as humans are necessarily complex and messy, this is certainly not a simple task. There are a variety of terminologies used for citizen science research, but the academic literature tends to use the term: Public Participation in Scientific Research (PPSR) (Bonney et al. 2009, Shirk et al. 2012a, Phillips et al. 2014). Literature reviews have attempted to categorize the types and qualities of participation, and the primary three categories are: Contributory, Collaborative, and Co-created (Bonney et al. 2009, Shirk et al. 2012a, Phillips et al. 2014). Of the studies I have found on the use of GIS in citizen science research, these projects can all be fairly easily categorized according to these three aforementioned descriptors. Based on my literature review, it appears that Participatory GIS (PGIS, for short) has three broad uses: 1) crowd sourced data to help answer scientific questions about geography and local communities, 2) grass roots projects that empower local residents to make spatial decisions about their own communities, and 3) long-term, intensive ecological monitoring that would not be possible without the help of citizen scientists. All three of these categories utilize various interactive geographic tools such as: Google Earth, WebGIS, Bird s Eye Viewer, OpenStreetMap, Wikimapia, COBWEB, GPL, FOSS, and ebird, just to name a few. (Sieber 2006, Elwood 2009, Newman et al. 2012, Arias de Reyna and Simoes 2016, Hachmann et al. 2017). There are also a number of case studies cited in the literature that explain the unique ways in which NGOs and students work with citizen scientists to digitize collected spatial data into an interactive database so that participants can view and analyze the findings (Sieber 2006, Elwood 2009, Arias de Reyna and Simoes 2016, Hachmann et al. 2017). But, as the authors of these papers explain, all of these tools have their own unique challenges and benefits. I would argue that the appropriate types of GIS tools to use will depend on which three of these categories the research falls under, and what the project outcomes are. A common critique of using PPSR for collecting geographic information is that citizens are not experts and therefore, the quality of the data is inherently flawed. However, all of the studies I read explained various technologies and tools that can be used to address this issue. Programs like COBWEB, GPL, and FOSS are open source GIS programs that are designed specifically to integrate heterogeneous data from various different sources, and then use statistical methodologies to validate the quality of the data and adjust for error (Sieber 2006, Elwood 2009, Newman et al. 2012, Arias de Reyna and Simoes 2016). Arias de Reyna and Simoes (2016) and Hachmann et al. (2017) also argue that when it comes to using PGIS for community planning, the local residents are in fact the experts because they live in those areas on a day-

2 to-day basis, and have insider knowledge about how to best improve the spatial composition of their own communities. The future of PGIS seems promising, overall. NGOs, universities, and private organizations are already invested in the advancement of PGIS, and are dedicating resources and time toward improving the efficacy and accuracy of such data collection projects. PGIS and open source tools empower vulnerable communities that would not otherwise be able to improve the spatial planning of their own neighborhoods. In addition, PGIS provides scientists with important, longitudinal ecological and geographical data that would not otherwise be collected on such a large scale. Lastly, PGIS provides citizens the opportunity to engage in research and planning processes in a manner that has never before been possible. As a scientist, I think I can say with about 95% confidence that technologies, and society at large, will soon advance enough to address the concerns and challenges of PGIS as they arise. The benefits of PGIS certainly outweigh the potential cost of any challenges.

3 Annotated Bibliography Arias de Reyna, M., and J. Simoes Empowering citizen science through free and open source GIS. Open Geospatial Data, Software and Standards 1:7. Arias de Reyna and Simoes (2016) first define Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) as: a recent phenomenon taking place in the GIS community in which large numbers of individuals, often without any formal qualifications, create geographic information. The authors are specifically interested in the ways in which GIS technologies can empower local residents to create community plans that best suit their own needs. This article provides us with a review of the different types of open source GIS available to citizen scientists. In addition, the authors present a framework for implementing citizen science community mapping projects, based off of various case studies. Some of the programs that the authors cite are: Web GIS (sometimes also referred to as Web Mapping), Geo Network, OpenSource, COBWEB, GPL, and FOSS. COBWEB appears to be the program of choice for the researchers because of its very low cost per user and its ability to validate quality of the data. One example of how COBWEB achieves this is by using automatic filters on the data collected, based on known statistic distributions, and automatically throwing out outliers. There are other programs that use various types of methods for validating quality of data, but according to this review, COBWEB has the most developed quality assurance capabilities. Given that a common complaint about VGI and citizen science is limited access to GIS resources and quality of the data collected, I think this is an important paper for empowering citizen scientists, as well as improving the quality and use of VGI. Elwood, S Geographic Information Science: new geovisualization technologies emerging questions and linkages with GIScience research. Progress in Human Geography 33: Elwood provides us with a review that explains what exactly VGI is, and how it has changed over time. Elwood explains there are a number of terms that have been used to explain this growing phenomenon including: neogeography, web mapping, volunteered geographic information, ubiquitous cartography, and wiki-mapping. The author first explains the various ways that geographic information can be used by citizens: geotagging, geoblogging, and GPS-enabled devices. As with any developing field, there are questions and criticisms from outsiders, and the author addresses many of those criticisms. A common critique is the issue of citizen scientists collected data versus expert data. The author provides us with some case studies of how that particular issue has been addressed and argues that because research on improving data quality of VGI is expanding, this is a criticism that will likely become invalid over time. She also points out additional challenges: integrating heterogeneous data, representing qualitative spatial expressions, and incorporating the dynamic meanings of data as they are transformed in use. Again, she cites various case studies and projects that address these challenges, and how these projects can improve. The author s main argument is that while there are challenges with VGI, we have the technology and ability to adapt and figure out ways to address these challenges. Hachmann, S., J. Jokar Arsanjani, and E. Vaz Spatial data for slum upgrading: Volunteered Geographic Information and the role of citizen science. Habitat International.

4 This paper surveys the various ways in which spatial data can be used to improve the condition of informal settlements (also known as slums). The authors argue that Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) and Citizen Science (CS) can be combined to help the community members improve the conditions of their neighborhoods. Hachmann et al. (2017) provide us with a number of case studies in which local residents used online GIS resources, such as OpenStreetMap, to determine the current layout of their settlements. Based off of those layouts, the residents then worked with NGOs (and in some case studies, local students) to create layout plans that would improve the conditions of the informal settlement. As with any kind of large citizen science project, there are both unique opportunities and unique challenges. The authors noted two primary challenges to this type of endeavor: 1) inadequate and unequal access to internet and GIS technology in these communities, and 2) validating the accuracy of the citizen data. However, the opportunities of such projects are that it provides residents with the power to express their needs to municipalities and supply urban planners with up-to-date, accurate information. The authors argue that although validation of citizen scientist collected data is challenging, these community members really are the experts of their own communities because they live there every day. As access to internet and GIS technology becomes easier, and more NGO mapping projects are created, resident collection of geographic information in their local communities will likely become a powerful tool for providing spatial information to planning efforts. Newman, G., A. Wiggins, A. Crall, E. Graham, S. Newman, and K. Crowston The future of citizen science: emerging technologies and shifting paradigms. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10: The authors of this paper were primarily interested in the ways that citizen science and GIS technology can be used to improve science education and scientific research (in particular, ecological research). This paper was a combination of traditional literature review and opinion piece. The authors discuss: 1) the types of technologies and programs that are currently being used (such as Project Budburst), 2) the way in which citizen science teams are created and research questions are developed, 3) the way in which data is collected and managed, 4) the challenges of analyzing and interpreting data, and 5) assessing the effectiveness of these projects. Project Budburst is a mobile phone app that allows citizen scientists to input location data of a variety of plant species over time, in order to help estimate the biodiversity and phenology of certain plant species in certain geographic regions. The authors explain that there are a multitude of similar projects that use citizen scientist collected data to address certain ecological questions about distribution, abundance, and phenology of various species. The types of projects allow us to create hot spot maps, for example, in order to better understand patterns of distribution across the landscape. As in other VGI papers, the authors acknowledge the challenges of collecting and analyzing citizen science data, but argue that certain technologies will provide us with ways to address these issues (e.g., grid and cloud computing will expand data storage and analytic capabilities and improved browser-based visualization and analysis tools will allow participants to examine data more freely). The authors conclude by explaining the ways in which advancing technologies have allowed citizen scientists to become engaged in more parts of the research process, and they envision networked, open source science as the future of engaging non-traditional audiences in scientific research.

5 Shirk, J. L., H. L. Ballard, C. C. Wilderman, T. Phillips, A. Wiggins, R. Jordan, E. McCallie, M. Minarchek, B. V. Lewenstein, M. E. Krasny, and R. Bonney Public Participation in Scientific Research: a Framework for Deliberate Design. Ecology and Society 17. Shirk et al. (2012) provide us with a literature review of the history of public participation in scientific research (PPSR), and the ways in which such studies can be evaluated and assessed for improvement. The authors define citizen science, aka, Public Participation in Scientific research as: Intentional collaborations in which members of the public engage in the process of research to generate new science-based knowledge. Based on a review of numerous different PPSR projects, the researchers identify five different categories: Contractual projects, Contributory projects, Collaborative projects, Co-created projects, and Collegial contributions. Contractual projects are projects in which communities ask professional researchers to conduct a specific scientific investigation and report on the results. Contributory projects are designed by scientists and then members of the public contribute the data. Collaborative projects are similar to Contributory projects but participants also help to refine the project design, analyze the data, and/or disseminate findings. Co-created projects are designed by both scientists and members of the public and at least some of the public participants are actively involved in most or all steps of the scientific process. Collegial contributions are when non-credentialed individuals conduct research independently. The authors argue that the particular type of participation model you choose to use in PPSR depends on what your ultimate outcomes are. Though the authors do not discuss GIS in any detail, this article provides us with a framework of what exactly citizen science is and how various types of PGIS can be categorized. Sieber, R Public Participation Geographic Information Systems: A Literature Review and Framework. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 96: This paper provides a historical literature review of how Public Participation in GIS (PPGIS or PGIS) was first created, how it has changed over time, and how it can be used in the future. The review identifies four major themes found in the PGIS literature: 1) place and people, 2) technology and data, 3) process, and 4) outcome and evaluation. Sieber first explains that PGIS is conditioned by the laws, culture, politics, and history of the community in which it is applied. He then considers appropriateness, accuracy, and dissemination of the data, and who should have access and ownership. He argues the major challenges of PGIS are that citizens have to learn how to use the necessary technologies, and they may not always be able to learn it. However, he cites a few case studies to address this concern. One primary example was a project in which NGOs and students worked with local residents to construct a cardboard model of the town, which was gridded and photographed, and then digitized into a spatial database. Similar to PPSR, participation in PPGIS can range in quality and intensity, from mere collection of data (ie., contributory), to collaboration (i.e., collaborative), to some degree of citizen control and empowerment (i.e., co-created). Ultimately, Sieber contends that PGIS provides us with important ways to engage the public in decision making, integrate and contextualize complex spatial information, and empower individuals and groups to improve their communities and engage further in the research process.

6 Additional References: Benson, E. S A Centrifuge of Calculation: Managing Data and Enthusiasm in Early Twentieth-Century Bird Banding. Osiris 32: Bonney, R., H. Ballard, R. Jordan, E. McCallie, T. Phillips, J. Shirk, and C. C. Wilderman Public Participation in Scientific Research: Defining the Field and Assessing Its Potential for Informal Science Education. A CAISE Inquiry Group Report. Online Submission. < Accessed 28 Apr Connors, J. P., S. Lei, and M. Kelly Citizen Science in the Age of Neogeography: Utilizing Volunteered Geographic Information for Environmental Monitoring. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 102: Hossain, M., and I. Kauranen Crowdsourcing: a comprehensive literature review. Strategic Outsourcing: An International Journal 8:2 22. Parr, D. A., and M. Scholz Building a Low-Cost Geographic Website for Collecting Citizen Science Contributions. Papers in Applied Geography 1: Phillips, T., M. L. Henneman, M. Minarchek, N. Porticella, and R. Bonney User s Guide for Evaluating Learning Outcomes in Citizen Science. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. < Accessed 1 May Thompson, M. M Upside-Down GIS: The Future of Citizen Science and Community Participation. The Cartographic Journal 53: