asors REMOTE SENSING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS edited by Manual of Remote Sensing Andrew N. Rencz, Editor-in-Chief Third Edition, Volume 5

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1 REMOTE SENSING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS edited by Merrill K. Ridd University ofutah and James D. Hippie US Department ofagriculture Manual of Remote Sensing Third Edition, Volume 5 Andrew N. Rencz, Editor-in-Chief asors ^i THE IMAGING & GEOSPATIAL INFORMATION SOCIETY

2 Contents Foreword Preface Contributors Contributing Authors PART 1: Basics of Remote Sensing xvii xix xxi xxix of Human Settlements 1 CHAPTER 1: Historical Evolution and Mapping of Human Settlements 3 Renee R. Gluch 1.1. Definition and Evolution of Human Settlements Definition of Human Settlements Current Trends of Human Settlements Role of Remote Sensing of Human Settlements Early Mapping of Human Settlements Aerial Mapping of Human Settlements Balloons, Kites, and Aerial Photography Early Use of Aircraft Platforms Development of Color and Near-Infrared Photography Impact of Military Applications Imaging of Human Settlements from Space Imaging Human Settlements from Manned Spacecraft Imaging Human Settlements from Unmanned Spacecraft Rasterizing the environment The profound impact of digital multispectral imaging The rising demand for improved resolution Non-Photographic Sensors Rapidly Developing Resources Hardware, Software, Costs, and Efficiencies Disciplinary Applications and Innovations Merging data from multiple sensors Merging remote sensing and G1S techniques Land use/land cover analysis Looking Ahead Continuing Urbanization and Environmental Conversion Remote Sensing Needs 28 References 29 V

3 vi Contents CHAPTER 2: Principles and Tools for Remote Sensing of Human Settlements 37 Bruce C. Forster 2.1. Introduction Introduction to Imaging Systems Photographic Imaging Systems Imaging Sensor Systems Detectors Types of sensing systems Aerial Photography and Human Settlements Ongoing Role of Aerial Photography in Remote Sensing Resolution and Interpretation of Air Photographs Digital Multispectral Imaging and Resolution Spatial Resolution Spectral, Radiometric and Temporal Resolution Resolution Requirements for Remote Sensing of Human Settlements Operational and Proposed Sensors Applicable to Human Settlements Introduction Visible and Infrared Satellite Sensing Systems Landsat SPOTHRV IRS systems Some Current and Proposed High Spatial and Spectral Resolution Systems Satellite Imaging Radar Systems Introduction to radar systems Radarsat European Space Agency satellites (ERS-1 and -2, Envisat) Japanese Earth Resources Satellite (JERS-1) Airborne SAR systems Background to Radar Remote Sensing Introduction to Radar Theory Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Radar Geometric Distortions Radar Equation Radar Polarization Radar Backscattering Mechanisms SAR Interferometry Background to Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Introduction to Thermal Infrared Theory Inputs to Surface Temperature Field Support for Remote Sensing of Human Settlements Introduction Review of Coordinate Systems and Map Projections Ground Control Points and Location Field Sampling Methods Use of Field Data for Model Development 142 References 144

4 Contents vii CHAPTER 3: Characterizing and Mapping Human Settlements 149 James D. Hippie et al What to Map Temporal and Spatial Resolution Requirements Enhancing imagery through image fusion Mapping the Morphology of Human Settlements Mapping Urban Morphology: The Base Map Requirements for orthophoto production The orthophotograph and orthorectified satellite imagery The Urban/Non-Urban Dichotomy Characterizing Environmental Systems of Human Settlements Land Cover Techniques USGS land cover/land use classification system Common classification methods The V-I-S model Biological zones Measurement of Urban Biophysical Parameters Discerning unique urban features through spectroscopy An urban spectral library Case study: Remote sensing for urban forest mapping Mapping Thermal Properties Assessing Human Systems Structures: Buildings, Pavement, and Land Disturbance (Direct) Impervious Surfaces Socioeconomic and Demographic Variables (Indirect) 194 References 195 CHAPTER 4: Image Processing Methods 207 Peng Gong 4.1. Introduction Data Availability Primary Components in Image Processing Radiometric Processing Detector Response Calibration Gray-level Value to Radiance or Reflectance Transformation - Simple Atmospheric Correction Radiometric Normalization Atmospheric Path Radiance Determination Application of Atmospheric Radiative Transfer Models Summary 4.3. Geometric Processing Ground Control Point Selection and Coordinate Determination The Geometric Transformation Model Between Image and Reference Source Image Resampling Image Mosaicking Summary and Additional Remarks

5 Viii Contents 4.4. Image Enhancement Histogram Adjustment Multispectral Operations and Simple Indices Principal Component Analysis Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Morphological Filtering Hit-or-miss transformations Generalized dilation and erosion Gray-scale image morphological filtering Texture Feature Generation Simple statistics Gray-level co-occurrence matrix method Spatial statistics-based measures Fractal-based texture measures Texture measures in the frequency domain Texture measures based on wavelet transforms Wavelet Transforms Wavelets and scaling functions Decomposition and reconstruction Two-dimensional wavelet transform Applications Image Fusion Summary Acknowledgements 268 References 269 CHAPTER 5: Information Extraction 275 Peng Gong 5.1. Introduction Image Classification Conventional Multispectral Classification Methods Multi-dimensional thresholding Minimum-distance classification Maximum-likelihood classification Non-parametric Bayesian classifier Classification based on evidential theory Artificial neural-network classification Special Considerations in Conventional Image Processing Accuracy Assessment Spatial Contextual Classification Algorithms Spectral Mixture Modeling The Linear Spectral Mixing Model Solutions to the Linear Spectral Problem when the Number and the Spectral Identities of Endmembers Are Known Image Enhancement with Linear Spectral Mixing Model Noise Effects on Linear Unmixing 316

6 Contents ix Solutions to the Linear Spectral Mixing Problem with No A Priori Knowledge Summary and Perspectives Linear Feature Extraction Gradient Operator-based Methods Profile Analysis-based Methods Mathematical Morphology-based Methods Knowledge-based Methods Object Extraction-based Methods Automated Road Network Extraction Using GDPA Method Summary Acknowledgements 324 References 325 PART 2: Application of Remote Sensing of Human Settlements 335 CHAPTER 6: Estimating Population C. P. Lo and Census Data Introduction Estimating Regional Populations Principles of Estimating Population by Remote Sensing Applications Allometric growth model Central place theory Sensor System Considerations Radar Applications Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Automating Regional Population Estimation Intra-settlement Population Estimation Dwelling Unit-related Demographic Models Zone-based Approach: Land Use-related Demographic Models Pixel-based Approach I: Spectral Radiance-related Demographic Pixel-based Approach II: Texture-related Demographic Models 358 Models Estimating Socioeconomic Variables Social Structure of the City Housing Quality Assessment Quality of Life Assessment Census from the Sky? Conclusion 371 References 373

7 X Contents CHAPTER 7: Satellites, Settlements, and Human Health 379 Nancy G. Maynard 7.1. Introduction Epidemiology-Land Surface Variables Extreme Weather- and Climate-related Events Air Quality/Air Pollution UV Radiation Ocean/Coastal Areas Contaminant Transport and Deposition Space Shuttle and International Space Station 393 References 394 CHAPTER 8: Remote Sensing of Natural and Man-Made Hazards and Disasters 401 John R. Jensen and Michael E. Hodgson 8.1. Introduction Natural Hazards and Disasters Natural Chemical Seeps Flooding Volcanic Eruptions and Lava Flows Wildfire Earthquakes Meteorological Events Hurricanes Lightning Tornadoes Windstorms Aeolian dust storms and sand dunes Landslides Snow Avalanches Glacial/Iceberg Migration Man-Made Hazards/Disasters Accidental Truck/railroad/ship/factory chemical releases Explosions Structural failures Endemic-Legal Thermal pollution Hazardous waste sites Air quality Environmental Terrorism and Cultural Terrorism Summary Terrorist bomb damage assessment Chemical spill and oil derrick fire assessment Attack on the World Trade Center and Pentagon 1 1 September References 426 Other Sources

8 Contents xi CHAPTER 9: Archaeological Remote Sensing of Early Human Settlements 431 Thomas L. Sever and John T. Parry 9.1. Introduction Aerial Archaeology Development and Progress Historical Development of Aerial Archaeology The Scope of Aerial Archaeology Across the Spectrum: Other Remote Sensing Systems and the View from Space Thermal Infrared Scanning Imaging Radar The View from Space Landsat and Skylab Digital Data Merging and Geographic Information Systems Prospects Large-scale, Low-altitude Aerial Photography with RPVs (Remotely Piloted Vehicles) Historical Background Equipment: RPVs and Cameras Film Type Film Selection and Processing Flight Planning for RPV Operations Large-scale, Low-altitude Imagery Interpretation Digital Camera Usage with Low-altitude Large-scale Reconnaissance New Traces of the Graeco-Roman World: Site Recording with Twin Cameras from a Tethered Balloon Historical Background Equipment: Balloons and Cameras Operating Procedures Applications of Balloon Photography The Future A National Mapping Program for Archaeological Sites Background A National Mapping Program for England Synthesis and Results Future Directions Aerial and Ground-based Remote Sensing in Central America The Arenal Area, Costa Rica The Ceren Site, El Salvador Ground-penetrating Radar Review From Under Desert Sands: Egypt and the Middle East Ground-based Remote Sensing Aerial Photography and Airborne Multispectral Imaging Archaeological Remote Sensing with Landsat Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-A, -B, and -C) Critique and Prospects 489

9 Xli Contents 9.9. Regional-Scale Landscape Archaeology: 21st Century Remote Sensing Technology and the Ancient Maya Department of Peten, Guatemala Deforestation Bajo Utilization Understanding Ancient Maya Landscape Vegetation Signature Conclusions 499 References 503 Other Sources 516 CHAPTER 10: Documenting Dynamics Merrill K. Ridd of Human Settlements Introduction Global Phenomenon of Shifting Human Settlements Determining the Dynamic Variables to Address Morphological Dynamics of Human Settlements Simple Observation of Urban Growth Mapping Growth from "Non-built" to "Built" Basic Land Cover Classification for Change Detection Change Detection Through Multispectral Analysis General considerations Environmental considerations Computational considerations Change detection algorithms Applications of multispectral change detection procedures Accuracy assessment Summary Change Detection Through Spatial/Textural/Numerical Analysis Textural and spatial analysis for change detection Change detection through fractal analysis Change detection through spatial autocorrelation analysis Fractal change detection of settlement density via semi-classified image Conclusion Environmental Dynamics of Human Settlements The City as an Urban Ecosystem Remote sensing and the urban ecosystem Urban Thermal Energy Exchanges Urban spatial heterogeneity and energy Day-night heat flux High spatial resolution thermal infrared data The urban heat island effect Implications for analysis of urban ecosystem thermal energy inputs Moisture Dynamics of Human Settlements Urban hydrology and impervious surface area 578

10 Contents xiii Approaches toward the determination of ISA The urban surface energy partition and moisture balance Summary Changing Vegetation in Human Settlements Relating classical urban models to urban vegetation models Capturing long-term vegetation dynamics in a short-term study Residential land use vegetation change Urban riparian vegetation change Vegetation change and related socioeconomic conditions Environmental Impact Due to Urbanization Human Dynamics of Settlements Socioeconomic Demographic Characteristics Transient Human Settlements Unplanned Human Settlements Transportation Systems Data and applications Highway design and construction Cataclysmic Change and Impact on Human Habitability Tectonic and Volcanic Events Impacting Human Settlements Flood and Storm Events Impacting Human Settlements Fire and Its Effects Impacting Human Settlements Technological Disasters Impacting Human Settlements Multi-hazard Assessment Through Remote Sensing and GIS Analysis Summary 642 References 643 Other Sources 659