Growing Graphene on Semiconductors

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1 Growing Graphene on Semiconductors edited by Nunzio Motta Francesca Iacopi Camilla Coletti

3 Growing Graphene on Semiconductors

5 Growing Graphene on Semiconductors edited by Nunzio Motta Francesca Iacopi Camilla Coletti

6 Published by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3 8 Temasek Boulevard Singapore editorial@panstanford.com Web: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Growing Graphene on Semiconductors Copyright 2017 by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN (Hardcover) ISBN (ebook) Printed in the USA

7 Contents Preface ix 1. The Significance and Challenges of Direct Growth of Graphene on Semiconductor Surfaces 1 N. Mishra, J. Boeckl, N. Motta, and F. Iacopi 1.1 Introduction Direct Growth of Graphene on Si Substrates Laser Direct Growth Carbon Ion Implantation MBE Growth Thermal Decomposition of Bulk SiC Graphene on Silicon through Heteroepitaxial 3C-SiC Thermal Decomposition of 3C-SiC on Si Metal-Mediated Graphene Growth Conclusions Graphene Synthesized on Cubic-SiC(001) in Ultrahigh Vacuum: Atomic and Electronic Structure and Transport Properties 27 V. Yu. Aristov, O. V. Molodtsova, and A. N. Chaika 2.1 Introduction Synthesis of Few-Layer Graphene Methods of Graphene Fabrication Growth of Cubic-SiC Epilayers on Standard Si Wafers Synthesis of the Epitaxial Graphene Layers on (111)- and (011)-Oriented Cubic-SiC Films Grown on Si Wafers Synthesis and Characterization of Continuous Few-Layer Graphene on Cubic-SiC(001) Step-by-Step Characterization of SiC(001) Surface during Graphene Synthesis in Ultrahigh Vacuum 35

8 viii Contents Atomic and Electronic Structure of the Trilayer Graphene Synthesized on SiC(001) Influence of the SiC(001)-c(2 2) Atomic Structure on the Graphene Nanodomain Network Nanodomains with Self-Aligned Boundaries on Vicinal SiC(001)/Si(001) Wafers LEEM and Raman Studies of Graphene/SiC(001)/4 -off Si(001) Atomic and Electronic Structure of the Trilayer Graphene Synthesized on SiC(001)/2 -off Si(001) Transport Gap Opening in Nanostructured Trilayer Graphene with Self-Aligned Domain Boundaries Conclusions Graphene Growth via Thermal Decomposition on Cubic SiC(111)/Si(111) 77 B. Gupta, N. Motta, and A. Ouerghi 3.1 Introduction Epitaxial Growth of Graphene Thermal Graphitization of the SiC Surface Graphene Growth on Cubic SiC(111)/ Si(111) Surface Transformation: From 3C-SiC(111)/ Si(111) to Graphene Reconstructions of SiC(111) Si-terminated face C-terminated face LEED and LEEM Characterization of the Transformation STM Characterization: Atomic Resolution Imaging of the Transition Atomic Structure Studies of Bi- and Multilayer Graphene 92

9 Contents ix Improving the Epitaxial Graphene Quality by Using Polished Substrates Conclusion Diffusion and Kinetics in Epitaxial Graphene Growth on SiC 109 M. Tomellini, B. Gupta, A. Sgarlata, and N. Motta 4.1 Introduction Evolution of Epitaxial Graphene Films as a Function of Annealing Temperature Evaluation of the Growth Rate in UHV Growth Kinetics of Epitaxial Graphene Films on SiC Growth Kinetics under Ar Pressure Growth Kinetics in UHV Si and C Diffusion Process Kinetic Model of Graphene Layer-by- Layer Formation Kinetics of Graphene Islands with Constant Thickness Alternative Kinetic Models Terrace growth model Disk growth model Conclusion Atomic Intercalation at the SiC Graphene Interface 141 S. Forti, U. Starke, and C. Coletti 5.1 The Interface Layer Hydrogen Intercalation How It Works Technical Details Quasi-Freestanding Monolayer Graphene Quasi-Freestanding Bilayer Graphene: Seeking a Bandgap The ABC of Quasi-Freestanding Trilayer Graphene Hydrogen Intercalation at the 3C-SiC(111)/Graphene Interface 156

10 x Contents Hydrogen Intercalation: Impact and Advances Intercalation of Different Atomic Species The Intercalation of Ge Atoms at the Graphene/SiC Interface Electronic Spectrum of a Graphene Superlattice Induced by Intercalation of Cu Atoms Conclusive Remarks Epitaxial Graphene on SiC: 2D Sheets, Selective Growth, and Nanoribbons 181 C. Berger, D. Deniz, J. Gigliotti, J. Palmer, J. Hankinson, Y. Hu, J.-P. Turmaud, R. Puybaret, A. Ougazzaden, A. Sidorov, Z. Jiang, and W. A. de Heer 6.1 Introduction Near-Equilibrium Confinement-Controlled Sublimation Growth Multilayer C Face Monolayer C Face Monolayer Si Face Selective Graphene Growth Masking Techniques Sidewall Facets Large-Scale Integration Conclusion 199 Index 205

11 Contents xi Preface Graphene, the wonder material of the 21st century, has not yet achieved the expected outcomes in terms of applications in nanoelectronics. This is not surprising, as large-scale graphene growth is still mostly limited to CVD on metallic foils, followed by graphene transfer to the semiconductor substrate required for electronic devices, which is cumbersome and difficult to automatize. Moreover, graphene is gapless, and this is still seriously limiting its applications. This book is an attempt to dispel this pessimistic outlook, summarizing the latest achievements in the direct growth of graphene on semiconductors. SiC is the ideal semiconductor for graphene growth, which is typically achieved by thermal graphitization. Through hightemperature annealing in a controlled environment, it is possible to decompose the topmost SiC layers, obtaining quasi-ideal graphene by Si sublimation. Graphene on SiC with record electronic mobilities has been demonstrated, opening the way for applications in nanoelectronics, by exploiting selective growth on patterned structures and gap opening by quantum confinement. The book opens with a chapter on the significance and challenges of graphene growth on semiconductors, by Mishra et al., drawing a picture of the perspectives of this technology. The three following chapters, by Aristov et al., Gupta et al., and Tomellini et al., respectively, are dedicated to an up-to-date analysis of the synthesis of graphene on SiC in ultrahigh vacuum. The fifth chapter, by Forti, Starke, and Coletti, is a review of the effect of atomic intercalation at the SiC graphene interface, with an in-depth discussion of the doping effects and of the electronic properties of lateral superlattices. The sixth chapter, written by the de Heer and Berger group, reporting graphene growth on SiC by sublimation, summarizes the whole history of graphene growth on SiC by confined controlled sublimation, up to the latest developments in the growth of templated graphene nanostructures.

12 xii Preface We hope that this book can be of inspiration to the many scientists striving to improve the growth of graphene on semiconductors and to the young researchers from industry and academia approaching this fascinating world. The developments sketched here show a promising outlook for the future, with many exciting outcomes on the horizon, from the artificial opening of a gap to the creation of 2D field-effect transistors with nanodimensions. Nunzio Motta Queensland University of Technology, Australia Francesca Iacopi University of Technology Sydney, Australia Camilla Coletti Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Italy

Current-Driven Phenomena in NANOELECTRONICS. Edited by Tamar Seideman Northwestern University

Current-Driven Phenomena in NANOELECTRONICS Edited by Tamar Seideman Northwestern University Published by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3 8 Temasek Boulevard Singapore