Nanostructures. Nanomaterials Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

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1 Nanostructures and Nanomaterials Synthesis, Properties, and Applications 2nd Edition

2 World Scientific Series in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Series Editor: Mark Reed (Yale University) Vol. 1 Vol. 2 Molecular Electronics: An Introduciton to Theory and Experiment Juan Carlos Cuevas (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain) and Elke Scheer (Universität Konstanz, Germany) Nanostructures and Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications, 2nd Edition Guozhong Cao (University of Washington, USA) and Ying Wang (Louisiana State University, USA)

Volume 2 World Scientific Series in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Nanostructures and Nanomaterials Synthesis, Properties, and Applications 2nd Edition Guozhong

3 Volume 2 World Scientific Series in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Nanostructures and Nanomaterials Synthesis, Properties, and Applications 2nd Edition Guozhong Cao University of Washington, USA Ying Wang Louisiana State University, USA World Scientific NEW JERSEY LONDON SINGAPORE BEIJING SHANGHAI HONG KONG TAIPEI CHENNAI

4 Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite , Hackensack, NJ UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. World Scientific Series in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Vol. 2 NANOSTRUCTURES AND NANOMATERIALS, 2nd Edition Synthesis, Properties, and Applications Copyright 2011 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN ISBN ISBN (pbk) ISBN (pbk) Typeset by Stallion Press enquiries@stallionpress.com Printed in Singapore.

5 Preface to the Second Edition We are delighted by the publication of this second edition by World Scientific Publishing Co. The first edition arrived at a time of great excitement in nanotechnology, and this excitement continues to grow. The main objective of this new edition was, therefore, to update with the new development in the processing and fabrication of nanostructures and nanomaterials in the past seven years, but retain the scope and the characteristic of the first edition: to summarize the fundamentals and technical approaches in synthesis, fabrication, and processing of nanostructures and nanomaterials so as to provide the readers with a systematic and coherent picture of the field and to serve as a general introduction to people just entering the field and experts seeking for information in other subfields. The new edition features some rewritings to improve clarity, ranging from rewording to rearranging some paragraphs. Updates are found mostly in Chapters 3, 4, 6, and 9. Updated information on the synthesis of nanoparticles and core shell nanostructures has been integrated into Chapter 3. A review on synthesis and properties of inorganic nanotubes (other than carbon nanotubes) has been added into Chapter 4. Chapter 6 has been updated by adding more information on synthesis of mesoporous materials and subsections on inverse opals and bio-induced materials. Chapter 9 has the most extensive expansion by adding applications of nanostructures and nanomaterials in lithium-ion batteries, hydrogen storage, thermoelectrics, environmental applications, photonic crystals, and plasmon devices. Other updates and revision include the replacement of figures in Chapters 1, 5, and 8. We want to take this opportunity to thank the support from the readers throughout the world, and our particular appreciation goes to those who pointed out the errors, omissions, and ambiguity in the first edition. v

6 vi Nanostructures and Nanomaterials We tried hard to make all the correction and improve the presentation in the second edition. However, it is apparent that we could not possibly incorporate all the important topics and all the new advancement in nanostructures and nanomaterials into this book. We wish to acknowledge the help and support received from our colleagues, students, friends, and loved family members. We are indebted to Chuan Cai and Dongsheng Guan for taking care of the figures and the copyright permissions. Guozhong Cao Seattle, WA Ying Wang Baton Rouge, LA 10 May 2010

7 Contents Preface to the Second Edition Chapter 1 Introduction Introduction Emergence of Nanotechnology Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches Challenges in Nanotechnology Scope of the Book 13 References 15 Chapter 2 Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces Introduction Surface Energy Chemical Potential as a Function of Surface Curvature Electrostatic Stabilization Surface charge density Electric potential at the proximity of solid surface Van der Waals attraction potential Interactions between two particles: DLVO theory Steric Stabilization Solvent and polymer Interactions between polymer layers Mixed steric and electric interactions Summary 57 References 57 v vii

8 viii Nanostructures and Nanomaterials Chapter 3 Zero-Dimensional Nanostructures: Nanoparticles Introduction Nanoparticles Through Homogeneous Nucleation Fundamentals of homogeneous nucleation Subsequent growth of nuclei Growth controlled by diffusion Growth controlled by surface process Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles Influences of reduction reagents Influences by other factors Influences of polymer stabilizer Synthesis of semiconductor nanoparticles Synthesis of oxide nanoparticles Introduction to sol gel processing Forced hydrolysis Controlled release of ions Vapor phase reactions Solid-state phase segregation Nanoparticles Through Heterogeneous Nucleation Fundamentals of heterogeneous nucleation Synthesis of nanoparticles Kinetically Confined Synthesis of Nanoparticles Synthesis inside micelles or using microemulsions Aerosol synthesis Growth termination Spray pyrolysis Template-based synthesis Epitaxial Core Shell Nanoparticles Summary 130 References 131 Chapter 4 One-Dimensional Nanostructures: Nanowires 143 and Nanorods 4.1. Introduction Spontaneous Growth 145

9 Contents ix Evaporation (dissolution)-condensation growth Fundamentals of evaporation (dissolution)- condensation growth Evaporation-condensation growth Dissolution-condensation growth Vapor (or solution) liquid solid (VLS or SLS) growth Fundamental aspects of VLS and SLS growth VLS growth of various nanowires Control of the size of nanowires Precursors and catalysts Solution liquid solid growth Stress-induced recrystallization Template-Based Synthesis Electrochemical deposition Electrophoretic deposition Template filling Colloidal dispersion filling Melt and solution filling Chemical vapor deposition Deposition by centrifugation Converting through chemical reactions Electrospinning Lithography Summary 219 References 219 Chapter 5 Two-Dimensional Nanostructures: Thin Films Introduction Fundamentals of Film Growth Vacuum Science Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Evaporation Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) 243

10 x Nanostructures and Nanomaterials Sputtering Comparison of evaporation and sputtering Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Typical chemical reactions Reaction kinetics Transport phenomena CVD methods Diamond films by CVD Atomic Layer Deposition Superlattices Self-Assembly Monolayers of organosilicon or alkylsilane derivatives Monolayers of alkanethiols and sulfides Monolayers of carboxylic acids, amines, and alcohols Langmuir Blodgett Films Electrochemical Deposition Sol Gel Films Summary 289 References 289 Chapter 6 Special Nanomaterials Introduction Carbon Fullerenes and Nanotubes Carbon fullerenes Fullerene-derived crystals Carbon nanotubes Micro and Mesoporous Materials Ordered mesoporous structures Random mesoporous structures Crystalline microporous materials: Zeolites Core Shell Structures Metal oxide structures 334

11 Contents xi Metal polymer structures Oxide polymer nanostructures Organic-Inorganic Hybrids Class 1 hybrids Class 2 hybrids Intercalation Compounds Nanocomposites and Nanograined Materials Inverse Opals Bio-Induced Nanomaterials Summary 354 References 354 Chapter 7 Nanostructures Fabricated by Physical Techniques Introduction Lithography Photolithography Phase-shifting photolithography Electron beam lithography X-ray lithography Focused ion beam (FIB) lithography Neutral atomic beam lithography Nanomanipulation and Nanolithography Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) Nanomanipulation Nanolithography Soft Lithography Microcontact printing Molding Nanoimprint Dip-pen nanolithography Assembly of Nanoparticles and Nanowires Capillary forces Dispersion interactions 416

12 xii Nanostructures and Nanomaterials Shear-force-assisted assembly Electric-field-assisted assembly Covalently linked assembly Gravitational-field-assisted assembly Template-assisted assembly Other Methods for Microfabrication Summary 422 References 422 Chapter 8 Characterization and Properties of Nanomaterials Introduction Structural Characterization X-ray diffraction (XRD) Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) Gas adsorption Chemical Characterization Optical spectroscopy Electron spectroscopy Ion spectrometry Physical Properties of Nanomaterials Melting points and lattice constants Mechanical properties Optical properties Surface plasmon resonance Quantum size effects Electrical conductivity Surface scattering Change of electronic structure Quantum transport Effect of microstructure Ferroelectrics and dielectrics Superparamagnetism 496

13 Contents xiii 8.5. Summary 498 References 499 Chapter 9 Applications of Nanomaterials Introduction Molecular Electronics and Nanoelectronics Nanobots Biological Applications of Nanoparticles Catalysis by Gold Nanoparticles Bandgap Engineered Quantum Devices Quantum well devices Quantum dot devices Nanomechanics Carbon Nanotube Emitters Energy Applications of Nanomaterials Photoelectrochemical cells Lithium-ion rechargeable batteries Hydrogen storage Thermoelectrics Environmental Applications of Nanomaterials Photonic Crystals and Plasmon Waveguides Photonic crystals Plasmon waveguides Summary 546 References 546 Appendices 561 Index 569

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Light and Vacuum Downloaded from by on 11/22/17. For personal use only. This page intentionally left blank World Scientific Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ