10.1 Meiosis (AHL) Essen1al idea: Meiosis leads to independent assortment of chromosomes and unique composi1on of alleles in daughter cells.
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1 10.1 Meiosis (AHL) Essen1al idea: Meiosis leads to independent assortment of chromosomes and unique composi1on of alleles in daughter cells. The family portrait shows large amounts of varia1on within a family despite sharing a lot of genes. This shows the poten1al of crossing over and independent assortment to create near infinite varia1on in gametes and hence in offspring too. By Chris Paine hips://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/coloured-family.jpg hips://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
2 Understandings, Applica1ons and Skills Statement Guidance 10.1.U1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis U2 Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chroma1ds U3 Crossing over produces new combina1ons of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells U4 Chiasmata forma1on between non-sister chroma1ds can result in an exchange of alleles U5 Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I U6 Sister chroma1ds separate in meiosis II U7 Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orienta1on of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I S1 Drawing diagrams to show chiasmata formed by Diagrams of chiasmata should show sister crossing over. chroma1ds s1ll closely aligned, except at the point where crossing over occurred and a chiasma was formed.
3 Review: 3.3.U1 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. Meiosis is a reduc/on division of the nucleus to form haploid gametes One diploid (2N) body cells contain a homologous pair of each chromosome (except for sex cells) Chromosomes are replicated to form sister chroma1ds Four haploid (N) gametes contain one of each chromosome First division of the nucleus Second division of the nucleus Edited from: hips://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:diagram_of_meiosis.svg
4 Review: 3.3.U1 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. Meosis is a reduc/on division of the nucleus to form haploid gametes hip:// content/meiosis.html The anima1ons are a great way to visualise the process watch and take notes. hip:// hip://highered.mheduca1on.com/sites/ dl/free/ /120074/bio19.swf hip:// flashanimat/celldivision/meiosis.swf
5 Review: 3.3.U3 DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chroma1ds. Interphase In the S-phase of the interphase before meiosis begins, DNA replica1on takes place. Chromosomes are replicated and these copies are aiached to each other at the centromere. The aiached chromosome and its copy are known as sister chroma1ds. Following S-phase, further growth and prepara1on take place for meiosis.
6 10.1.U1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. An homologous pair of chromosomes
7 10.1.U1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. An homologous pair of chromosomes replicates during S-phase of interphase
8 10.1.U1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. An homologous pair of chromosomes replicates during S-phase of interphase centromere sister chroma1ds giving two pairs of sister chroma/ds, each joined at the centromere.
9 Review: 3.3.S1 Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resul1ng in the forma1on of four haploid cells. AND 3.3.U4 The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensa1on. Prophase I The homologous chromosomes associate with each other to form bivalents (synapsis). DNA supercoils and chromosomes condense nuclear membrane dissolves centrioles migrate to the poles of the cell. Crossing-over between non-sister chroma1ds can take place. This results in recombina/on of alleles and is a source of gene1c varia1on in gametes. Edited from: hip:// hip://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/gambier/micrographs/lateprophase3.htm
10 10.1.U2 Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between nonsister homologous chroma1ds. AND 10.1.U4 Chiasmata forma1on between non-sister chroma1ds can result in an exchange of alleles. The homologous pair associates during prophase I, through synapsis making a bivalent (or tetrad).
11 10.1.U2 Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chroma1ds. AND 10.1.U4 Chiasmata forma1on between non-sister chroma1ds can result in an exchange of alleles. Crossing-over might take place between non-sister chroma/ds in prophase I leading to recombina/on of alleles. The loca1on of crossing-over between non-sister chroma/ds is called the chiasma (pl. chiasmata).
12 10.1.U2 Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chroma1ds. AND 10.1.U4 Chiasmata forma1on between non-sister chroma1ds can result in an exchange of alleles. The forma/on of chiasma is common and is thought to be essen/al for meiosis How many chiasma can you iden1fy in the micrographs? In humans the average number of chiasmata per bivalent (tetrad) is just over two. a. b. Chiasma occur between the sister chroma1ds and therefore should be appear the central space. hip://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/biologypages/c/chiasmata013.jpg hip://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/etexts/bio13tuat01/bio13tuat01_063a(h280).jpg
13 10.1.U2 Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chroma1ds. AND 10.1.U4 Chiasmata forma1on between non-sister chroma1ds can result in an exchange of alleles. The forma/on of chiasma is common and is thought to be essen/al for meiosis How many chiasma can you iden1fy in the micrographs? In humans the average number of chiasmata per bivalent (tetrad) is just over two. a. b. 2 centromere Chiasma occur between the sister chroma1ds and therefore should be appear the the central space. hip://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/biologypages/c/chiasmata013.jpg hip://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/etexts/bio13tuat01/bio13tuat01_063a(h280).jpg
14 10.1.U3 Crossing over produces new combina1ons of alleles on the chromosomes of haploid cells. Increases gene;c varia;on through Crossing-over recombina;on of linked alleles. Synapsis Homologous chromosomes associate Chiasma Forma/on Neighboring non-sister chroma1ds are cut at the same point. A Holliday junc1on forms as the DNA of the cut sec1ons aiach to the open end of the opposite non-sister chroma1d. Recombina/on As a result, alleles are swapped between nonsister chroma1ds.
15 10.1.U3 Crossing over produces new combina1ons of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells. Crossing-Over Increases gene;c varia;on through recombina;on of linked alleles. Crossing over leads to more varia/on in gametes. This is the standard nota1on for wri1ng genotypes of alleles on linked genes (more of this later when we study 10.2 Inheritance AHL) Edited from: hip://
16 10.1.S1 Drawing diagrams to show chiasmata formed by crossing over. Crossing-Over Sister chroma1ds Drawing clear diagrams helps when communica;ng with others centromere Un-recombined chroma1ds Homologous pair chiasma Recombined chroma1ds Key points when drawing chiasmata: Use colour of shading to indicate the each of the sister chroma1ds Remember the homologous chromosomes are in synapsis before and aher crossing over the chromosomes should be shown close together.
17 Review: 3.3.S1 Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resul1ng in the forma1on of four haploid cells. AND 3.3.U5 Orienta1on of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separa1on is random. Metaphase I The bivalents line up at the equator. Random orienta/on occurs - each bivalent aligns independently and hence the daughter nuclei get a different mix of chromosomes. This is a significant source of gene1c varia1on: there are 2 n possible orienta1ons in metaphase I and II. That is 2 23 in humans or 8,388,068 different combina1ons in gametes! Edited from: hip:// courtesy of: hip://
18 10.1.U7 Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orienta1on of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Metaphase I Alleles have a 50 percent chance of moving to a par1cular pole. The direc1on in which one bivalent aligns does not affect the alignment of other bivalents. Therefore different allele combina1ons should always be equally possible (if the gene loci are on different chromosomes this does not hold for linked genes) Edited from: hip://
19 10.1.U5 Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I. In anaphase I, the homologous pair is separated but the sister chroma/ds remain arached. This is the reduc/on division.
20 Review: 3.3.S1 Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resul1ng in the forma1on of four haploid cells. Metaphase II Pairs of sister chroma1ds align at the equator. Spindle fibres form and aiach at the centromeres. Edited from: hip:// courtesy of: hip://
21 10.1.U6 Sister chroma1ds separate in meiosis II. Metaphase II Pairs of sister chroma1ds align at the equator. Spindle fibres form and aiach at the centromeres. Random orienta1on again contributes to varia1on in the gametes, though not to such an extent as in metaphase I. This is because there is only a difference between chroma1ds where crossingover has taken place.
22 Review: 3.3.S1 Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resul1ng in the forma1on of four haploid cells. Anaphase II The sister chroma1ds are separated. The chroma/ds (now called chromosomes are pulled to opposing poles. Spindle fibres contract and the centromeres are split. Edited from: hip:// courtesy of: hip://
23 10.1.U6 Sister chroma1ds separate in meiosis II. Telophase II n.b. due to crossing over each of the four new nuclei is likely to be gene;cally different. New haploid nuclei are formed. Cytokinesis begins, splijng the cells. The end result of meiosis is four haploid gamete cells. Fer1liza1on of these haploid gametes will produce a diploid zygote.
24 Check your language. This image shows A. Four separate chromosomes. B. A bivalent. C. One pair of sister chroma1ds. D. Non-disjunc1on.
25 Check your language. This image shows A. Four separate chromosomes. B. A bivalent. C. One pair of sister chroma1ds. D. Non-disjunc1on.
26 Check your language. This image shows A. Two separate chromosomes. B. A bivalent. C. One pair of sister chroma1ds. D. Crossing-over.
27 Check your language. This image shows A. Two separate chromosomes. B. A bivalent. C. One pair of sister chroma1ds. D. Crossing-over.
28 Check your language. This image shows A. Two separate chromosomes. B. A bivalent. C. One pair of sister chroma1ds. D. Homologous chromosomes.
29 Check your language. This image shows A. Two separate chromosomes. B. A bivalent. C. One pair of sister chroma1ds. D. Homologous chromosomes.
30 Check your language. This image shows A. 8 separate chromosomes. B. Two bivalents. C. Two pairs of sister chroma1ds. D. Two homologous chromosomes. 30
31 Check your language. This image shows A. 8 separate chromosomes. B. Two bivalents. C. Two pairs of sister chroma1ds. D. Two homologous chromosomes.
32 Review: 3.3.U7 Crossing over and random orienta1on promotes gene1c varia1on. Prophase I Metaphase I Metaphase II Crossing-over between nonsister chroma1ds results in recombina/on of alleles Random orienta/on of the homologous chromosomes means there are 2 n possible orienta1ons in metaphase I and II. That is 2 23 in humans or 8,388,068 different combina1ons in gametes! Because both crossing-over and random orienta/on occur during meiosis the result is is effec1vely infinite gene/c varia/on in the haploid gamete. n.b. for a new organism to arise sexually meiosis occurs in both parents further increasing the gene;c varia;on
33 Review: 3.3.U7 Crossing over and random orienta1on promotes gene1c varia1on. Prophase I Metaphase I Metaphase II Which part of the process, Meiosis I or Meiosis II, produces the most gene/c varia/on? Give evidence to support your answer. Crossing-over between nonsister chroma1ds results in recombina/on of alleles Random orienta/on of the homologous chromosomes means there are 2 n possible orienta1ons in metaphase I and II. That is 2 23 in humans or 8,388,068 different combina1ons in gametes! Because both crossing-over and random orienta/on occur during meiosis the result is is effec1vely infinite gene/c varia/on in the haploid gamete.
34 10.1.U7 Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orienta1on of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Mendel s Law of Independent Assortment The presence of an allele of one of the genes in a gamete has no influence over which allele of another gene is present. A and B are different genes on different chromosomes. A is dominant over a. B is dominant over b. This only holds true for unlinked genes (genes on different chromosomes).
35 10.1.U7 Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orienta1on of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Random Orienta/on vs Independent Assortment The presence of an allele of one of the genes in a gamete has no influence over which allele of another gene is present. Random Orienta/on refers to the behavior of homologous pairs of chromosomes (metaphase I) or pairs of sister chroma1ds (metaphase II) in meiosis. Independent assortment refers to the behaviour of alleles of unlinked genes as a result of gamete produc/on (meiosis). Due to random orienta/on of the chromosomes in metaphase I, the alleles of these unlinked genes have become independently assorted into the gametes. Anima/on from Sumanas: hip://
36 10.1.U7 Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orienta1on of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. The presence of an allele of one of the genes in a gamete has no influence over which allele of another gene is present. Mendel and Meiosis Mendel deduced that characteris1cs were determined by the interac1on between pairs of alleles long before the details of meiosis were known. Where Mendel states that pairs of alleles of a gene separate independently during gamete produc;on, we can now airibute this to random orienta/on of chromosomes during metaphase I. Mendel made this deduc1on when working with pea plants. He inves1gated two separate traits (color and shape) and performed many test crosses, recording the ra1os of phenotypes produced in subsequent genera1ons. It was rather fortunate that these two traits happened to be on separate chromosomes (unlinked genes)! Remember back then he did not know about the contents of the nucleus. Chromosomes and DNA were yet to be discovered. We will use his work as an example of dihybrid crosses in the next sec1on. Anima/on from Sumanas: hip://
37 Nature of Science: Making careful observa1ons careful observa1on and record keeping turned up anomalous data that Mendel s law of independent assortment could not account for. Thomas Hunt Morgan developed the no1on of linked genes to account for the anomalies. (1.8) Morgan s experiments ( ) with fruit flies produced results that could not be explained by Mendel s work on heredity as it stood. The anomalous data was repeated and found to be predictable. The experiments lead Morgan and his colleagues to revise Mendelian heredity (1915) to include certain key tenets: Discrete pairs of factors are located on chromosomes (later to be called genes) Certain characteris1cs are sex-linked Other characteris1cs are also some1mes associated Thomas Hunt Morgan developed the idea of sex-linked genes hips:// Hunt-Morgan.html Columbia University Fly Room hips://gene1csandevolu1onch10.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/kbtnk9dz jpg?w=672&h=327 hip://
38 Bibliography / Acknowledgments Bob Smullen
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