Chapter 11 INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
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1 Chapter 11 INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS
2 11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel I. Gregor Mendel A. Studied pea plants 1. Reproduce sexually (have two sex cells = gametes) 2. Uniting of male and female gametes = Fertilization 3. Pollination = Transfer of pollen from male part of plant to female part of plant a. Two Types: Male and female gametes come from same - Self-pollinate: plant, offspring are identical to parents *Allows for true breeding: Produce identical offspring to self
3 - Cross-pollinate: Male and female gametes are from two different plants
4 II. Laws of Heredity A. Heredity: Passing on of characteristics from parents to offspring B. Genetics: Study of heredity C. Traits: Specific characteristic D. Hybrid: Offspring of crosses btw parents with different traits E. Genes: Determines traits F. Alleles: Forms of a gene
5 III. Mendel s Experiment A. Crossed plants with contrasting traits 1. Studied seven traits Page 310
6 2. First crossed monohybrid (one trait) plants P = parents F 1 = first filial generation
7 F 2 = second filial generation Example: P = tall x F 1 = all tall short Self-pollinate: F 1 x F 1 F 2 = ¾ tall, ¼ short 3:1 ratio
8 B. Mendel s Conclusions: Biological inheritance is determined by factors (genes) passed from one generation to the next that follow 3 Laws. 1. Law of Dominance: Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive 2. Law of Segregation: gametes randomly pair producing four combinations of alleles 3. Law of Independent Assortment: Pairs of genes separate independently from each other
9 IV. Probability 11-2 Applying Mendel s Principles A. Likelihood a particular event will occur B. Can be used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses V. Punnett Squares A. Visual diagram to find all possible genetic variations of offspring of a cross B. Phenotype 1. Physical characteristic (looks/behavior/you can see it)
10 C. Genotype 1. Genetic make-up 2. Made up of alleles 3. Three combinations a. Homozygous Dominant TT b. Homozygous recessive tt c. Heterozygous Tt D. Example: Cross: Homozygous Dominant X Homozygous Recessive Cross: Heterozygous X Heterozygous
11 VI. Dihybrid Cross (2 traits) A. Round Yellow RRYY x wrinkled green rryy B. F 1 = RrYy C. F 1 x F 1 (self-pollinate) *To find the allele combinations for the gametes you have to FOIL FOIL = First Outside Inside Last R r Y y RY Ry ry ry Page 317
12 VI. Dihybrid Cross (2 traits) D. 9 Round Yellow, 3 Round Green 3 wrinkled Yellow, 1 wrinkled green E. Get a 9:3:3:1 Ratio of Phenotypes F. Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited independently from each other during gamete formation
13 Summary of Mendel s Principles Inheritance is determined by units called passed from parents to offspring. genes, which are Where more than one form of a gene for a single trait exists, some alleles may be dominant and others recessive. Each adult has two copies of each gene one from each parent. These genes segregate from each other when gametes are formed. Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently each other. of
14 VII. Modes of Inheritance A. Incomplete Dominance (Page 319 Figure 11-12) Neither allele is dominant or recessive, so they mix together 2. Phenotype somewhere between the two alleles Example: Red (RR) x White (WW) = PINK (RW) B. Codominance 1. Both alleles are dominant & contribute to phenotype Example: Black Rooster (BB) x White Hen (WW) = Checkered Chickens (BW)
15 C. Multiple Alleles (Page 320) 1. More than 2 alleles are available Example: eye color, rabbit fur color
16 D. Polygenic Traits (= Many Genes for a trait) 1. Traits controlled by more than 2 genes Example: human skin color (at least 4 genes), most human traits
17 E. Genes & the Environment (page 321) 1. Environmental conditions can affect gene expression & influences genetically determined traits.
18 11-4 Meiosis VIII. Chromosome Number A. Homologous Chromosomes 1. Paired chromosomes with genes of same traits in same order 2. Not always identical B. Haploid 1. Gamete cell has one of each kind of chromosome 2. n C. Diploid 1. Chromosome appear in pairs (2 sets of chromosomes 1 from mom and 1 from dad) 2. 2n
19 IX. Meiosis A. Occurs in specialized cells that produce gametes 1. Gamete = sperm/ovum B. Organisms inherit a single copy of every gene from each parent C. Produces gametes with only 1 set of genes D. Two divisions 1. Meiosis I and Meiosis II 2. Diploid (2n) cell at beginning of Meiosis I and 4 haploid (n) cells at the end of Meiosis II
20 E. Stages 1. Interphase Interphase I a. DNA replicates 2. Meiosis I a. Prophase I Prophase I - Chromosomes pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome (matched gene by gene = TETRAD) - Non-sister chromatids overlap & exchange material = Crossing Over (Page 324)
21 b. Metaphase I - Paired homologous chromosomes line up across center of the cell Metaphase I c. Anaphase I - Homologous chromosomes separate by fibers and move to opposite ends of the cell Anaphase I
22 d. Telophase I and Cytokinesis - Nuclear membranes form and cell separates Telophase I *The two cells produced by meiosis I have chromosomes and alleles that are different from each other and from the diploid cell that entered meiosis I. e. The two cells enter a second meiotic division.
23 Page 324 Meiosis I Interphase I Meiosis I Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and Cytokinesis
24 3. Meiosis II a. Prophase II - Spindle fibers forms Prophase II Metaphase II b. Metaphase II - Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
25 c. Anaphase II - Centromere splits sister chromatids and go to opposite ends of the cell Anaphase II Telophase II d. Telophase II and Cytokinesis - Nuclei reform, spindle fibers break down, cytoplasm divides e. END RESULT: 4 haploid cells (different)
26 Page 325 Meiosis II Telophase I and Cytokinesis I Meiosis II Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and Cytokinesis
27 X. Gamete Formation A. In male animals, meiosis results in four equal-sized gametes called sperm.
28 B. In many female animals, only one egg results from meiosis. The other three cells, called polar bodies, are usually not involved in reproduction.
29 XI. Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis vs Meiosis 1 division 2 divisions 2 identical diploid cells 4 different haploid cells Same # of chromosomes as parent cell Body cells (skin, muscle,..etc.) ½ the # of chromosomes as parent cell Sex cells (gametes)
30 Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis prophase (I) metaphase (I) anaphase (I) telophase (I) End of Meiosis I 2N = 4 N = 2 End of Meiosis II
31 11-5 Linkage and Gene maps XII. Gene Linkage A. Chromosomes are groups of linked genes B. Chromosomes assort independently not the genes C. Crossing over sometimes separates genes on chromosomes = Genetic Diversity XII. Gene Maps A. Shows distance between genes on chromosomes
32 Page 328
is the scientific study of. Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk. He is considered the of genetics. Mendel carried out his work with ordinary garden.
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