The Human Body: An Orientation

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2 The Human Body: An Orientation 17

3 The Human Body: An Orientation Unit Front Page (See reference page 21 for directions) 18

4 The Human Body: An Orientation This checklist will serve as your study guide to help you prepare for your exams. At the end of this unit, you will: Know how to use my Interactive Notebook. Be familiar with some of the frequently used Greek and Latin roots in scientific terms. Demonstrate how Greek and Latin roots can be linked together with at least 10 examples. Define the roots in your examples. Be able to write to demonstrate you knowledge of a concept. To do this, you will clearly be able to define and explain concepts. You will need to make claims and defend your claims with evidence based on your own knowledge, contextual clues from readings, and images. Explain the differences between anatomy and physiology, their relationship to each other, and describe their subdivisions. Define the principle of complementarity. Explain and name the different levels of structural organization that make up a human body and explain their relationship. List the 11 organ systems of the body, identify their organs, and briefly explain the major function(s) of each system. Be able to identify how different organ systems work cooperatively. For example, if you are taking a test, which organ systems are involved and why? Identify the characteristics of living things. What defines if an organism is alive? Explain the survival needs of the body. Define and explain the importance of homeostasis. Compare and contrast negative and positive feedback systems that maintain homeostasis. Be able to provide examples of positive and negative feedback. Describe the anatomical position and describe body orientation and direction. Explain how body orientation and direction is used to navigate the body. Define and identify Regional Body Terms. (ex. Cranial, carpel, popliteal, etc.) Locate and name the body cavities and their subdivisions. List the major organs contained within each cavity. Define and label parts of serous membranes and indicate its function. Explain the difference between visceral and parietal membranes and what is in between them. Be able to name different serous membranes based on its location. Name the nine regions and four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity. List the organs contained in each region and/or quadrant. Explain the various body planes. If you needed to be able to view both lungs to check for abnormalities, what body plane would you scan and why? Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes I will understand and recognize in words are: Ana-, cyto-, epi-, gastr-, histo-, homeo-, hypo-, lumbus-, meta-, org-, para-, parie-, peri-, viscus-, corona-, venter- -ology, -chondro-, -stasis, -tomy, -pathy 19

5 Figure A: Label each of the following organ systems 20

6 Reading Guide: Chapter 1 Human Body: An Orientation Instructions: The specific instructions for various activities in the reading guide can be found on reference pages and the grading rubrics can be found on reference pages 31. Refer to these pages carefully, as you will be completing reading guides all throughout this year. Since reading guides are a type of formative assessment, they are graded on completion, follow-through with guidelines, and quality. 1. Read Pgs. 2 3, 2 nd column of your textbook. Write a GIST for An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology on page 24 of your intnb. Don t forget to write the terms you use for your gist in the cue column and to underline the terms within your GIST in your writing. Your GIST must explain concepts. If you forgot how to write a GIST, the directions can be found on reference page Read pages. 3 4 on Levels of Structural Organization, and Figure 1.3 Summary of the body s organ systems on pages 6 7 of your textbook. Label the organ systems on the opposite page 20 of your intnb, Figure A 3. Read pages 4 8 in your textbook. Write a GIST on Maintaining Life on page 24 of your intnb. Do this below the first GIST on the Overview of Anatomy and Physiology. Don t forget to title your GIST Maintaining Life and write the terms you use for your gist in the cue column. Underline the terms within your GIST in your writing. If you need more space, go onto page Read pages 8 11 of your textbook on Homeostasis. Fill in the Venn Diagram on page 22 of this intnb, comparing and contrasting positive and negative homeostatic feedback mechanisms. Name at least 4 ways that the feedback mechanisms are different and at least 2 commonalities. 5. Read pages in your textbook on Language of Anatomy. Create a five and six tab notebook foldable of the Orientation and Directional Terms. Use the information on page 13, Table 1.1. for your foldable. On the front of the card, next to the illustration, write out the term associated with the illustration and write the definition on the back. Glue or tape these tabs neatly onto page 23 of your intnb. 6. On pages 26 and 27 of your intnb, create Cornell Notes vocabulary sheet of the regional terms. Use Figure 1.7 from page 14 of your text. The correct regional terms are given on the left cue column of your notes. Fill in the proper definition for each regional body term. 7. Read page 15, bottom of 1 st column to page 19 in your textbook. Write a GIST on Body Cavities & Membranes on page 25 of your intnb. 21

7 Homeostasis Positive Feedback Negative Feedback 22

8 Orientation and Directional Terms (Tabs) 23

9 Reading Guide Chapter 1 GIST 1 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 24

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11 Regional Body Terms Vocabulary Sheet 1. Nasal Nose 2. Oral 3. Cervical 4. Acromial 5. Axillary 6. Abdominal 7. Brachial 8. Antecubital 9. Antebrachial 10. Pelvic 11. Carpal 12. Pollex 13. Palmar 14. Digital 15. Pubic 16. Patellar 17. Crural 18. Pedal 19. Tarsal 20. Frontal 21. Orbital 22. Buccal 23. Mental 24. Sternal 25. Thoracic 26. Mammary 27. Umbilical 28. Coxal 29. Inguinal 26

12 Regional Body Terms Vocabulary Sheet 30. Femoral 31. Fibular or peroneal 33. Hallux 34. Cephalic 35. Manus 36. Otic 37. Occipital 38. Vertebral 39. Scapular 40. Dorsal 41. Olecranal 42. Lumbar 43. Sacral 44. Gluteal 45. Perineal 46. Popliteal 47. Sural 48. Calcaneal 49. Plantar 27

13 Practicing Common Core writing Your teacher will show you an image on the screen. Examine this image and the subject. Since body systems never work in isolation, explain which body systems are involved at this particular moment and why. 28

14 Aug 8, 2008 By Luis P. Villarreal Are Viruses Alive? Although viruses challenge our concept of what "living" means, they are vital members of the web of life In an episode of the classic 1950s television comedy The Honeymooners, Brooklyn bus driver Ralph Kramden loudly explains to his wife, Alice, You know that I know how easy you get the virus. Half a century ago even regular folks like the Kramdens had some knowledge of viruses as microscopic bringers of disease. Yet it is almost certain that they did not know exactly what a virus was. They were, and are, not alone. For about 100 years, the scientifi c community has repeatedly changed its collective mind over what viruses are. First seen as poisons, then as life-forms, then biological chemicals, viruses today are thought of as being in a gray area between living and nonliving: they cannot replicate on their own but can do so in truly living cells and can also affect the behavior of their hosts profoundly. The categorization of viruses as nonliving during much of the modern era of biological science has had an unintended consequence: it has led most researchers to ignore viruses in the study of evolution. Finally, however, scientists are beginning to appreciate viruses as fundamental players in the history of life. Coming to Terms It is easy to see why viruses have been diffi cult to pigeonhole. They seem to vary with each lens applied to examine them. The initial interest in viruses stemmed from their association with diseases the word virus has its roots in the Latin term for poison. In the late 19th century researchers realized that certain diseases, including rabies and foot-and-mouth, were caused by particles that seemed to behave like bacteria but were much smaller. Because they were clearly biological themselves and could be spread from one victim to another with obvious biological effects, viruses were then thought to be the simplest of all living, gene-bearing life-forms. 29

15 Their demotion to inert chemicals came after 1935, when Wendell M. Stanley and his colleagues, at what is now the Rockefeller University in New York City, crystallized a virus tobacco mosaic virus for the fi rst time. They saw that it consisted of a package of complex biochemicals. But it lacked essential systems necessary for metabolic functions, the biochemical activity of life. Stanley shared the 1946 Nobel Prize in chemistry, not in physiology or medicine for this work. Further research by Stanley and others established that a virus consists of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat that may also shelter viral proteins involved in infection. By that description, a virus seems more like a chemistry set than an organism. But when a virus enters a cell (called a host after infection), it is far from inactive. It sheds its coat, bares its genes and induces the cell s own replication machinery to reproduce the intruder s DNA or RNA and manufacture more viral protein based on the instructions in the viral nucleic acid. The newly created viral bits assemble and, voilà, more virus arises, which also may infect other cells. These behaviors are what led many to think of viruses as existing at the border between chemistry and life. More poetically, virologists Marc H. V. van Regenmortel of the University of Strasbourg in France and Brian W. J. Mahy of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have recently said that with their dependence on host cells, viruses lead a kind of borrowed life. Interestingly, even though biologists long favored the view that viruses were mere boxes of chemicals, they took advantage of viral activity in host cells to determine how nucleic acids code for proteins: indeed, modern molecular biology rests on a foundation of information gained through viruses. Molecular biologists went on to crystallize most of the essential components of cells and are today accustomed to thinking about cellular constituents for example, ribosomes, mitochondria, membranes, DNA and proteins as either chemical machinery or the stuff that the machinery uses or produces. This exposure to multiple complex chemical structures that carry out the processes of life is probably a reason that most molecular biologists do not spend a lot of time puzzling over whether viruses are alive. For them, that exercise might seem equivalent to pondering whether those individual subcellular constituents are alive on their own. This myopic view allows them to see only how viruses co-opt cells or cause disease. The more sweeping question of viral contributions 30

16 to the history of life on earth, which I will address shortly, remains for the most part unanswered and even unasked. To Be or Not to Be The seemingly simple question of whether or not viruses are alive, which my students often ask, has probably defied a simple answer all these years because it raises a fundamental issue: What exactly defines life? A precise scientific definition of life is an elusive thing, but most observers would agree that life includes certain qualities in addition to an ability to replicate. For example, a living entity is in a state bounded by birth and death. Living organisms also are thought to require a degree of biochemical autonomy, carrying on the metabolic activities that produce the molecules and energy needed to sustain the organism. This level of autonomy is essential to most definitions. Viruses, however, parasitize essentially all biomolecular aspects of life. That is, they depend on the host cell for the raw materials and energy necessary for nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, processing and transport, and all other biochemical activities that allow the virus to multiply and spread. One might then conclude that even though these processes come under viral direction, viruses are simply nonliving parasites of living metabolic systems. But a spectrum may exist between what is certainly alive and what is not. A rock is not alive. A metabolically active sack, devoid of genetic material and the potential for propagation, is also not alive. A bacterium, though, is alive. Although it is a single cell, it can generate energy and the molecules needed to sustain itself, and it can reproduce. But what about a seed? A seed might not be considered alive. Yet it has a potential for life, and it may be destroyed. In this regard, viruses resemble seeds more than they do live cells. They have a certain potential, which can be snuffed out, but they do not attain the more autonomous state of life. Another way to think about life is as an emergent property of a collection of certain nonliving things. Both life and consciousness are examples of emergent complex systems. They each require a critical level of complexity or interaction to achieve their respective states. A neuron by itself, or even in a network of nerves, is not conscious whole brain complexity is needed. Yet even an intact human brain can be biologically alive but incapable of consciousness, or braindead. Similarly, neither cellular nor viral individual genes or proteins are by themselves alive. The enucleated cell is akin to the state of being brain-dead, in 31

17 that it lacks a full critical complexity. A virus, too, fails to reach a critical complexity. So life itself is an emergent, complex state, but it is made from the same fundamental, physical building blocks that constitute a virus. Approached from this perspective, viruses, though not fully alive, may be thought of as being more than inert matter: they verge on life. In fact, in October, French researchers announced findings that illustrate afresh just how close some viruses might come. Didier Raoult and his colleagues at the University of the Mediterranean in Marseille announced that they had sequenced the genome of the largest known virus, Mimivirus, which was discovered in The virus, about the same size as a small bacterium, infects amoebae. Sequence analysis of the virus revealed numerous genes previously thought to exist only in cellular organisms. Some of these genes are involved in making the proteins encoded by the viral DNA and may make it easier for Mimivirus to coopt host cell replication systems. As the research team noted in its report in the journal Science, the enormous complexity of the Mimivirus s genetic complement challenges the established frontier between viruses and parasitic cellular organisms. Impact on Evolution Debates over whether to label viruses as living lead naturally to another question: Is pondering the status of viruses as living or nonliving more than a philosophical exercise, the basis of a lively and heated rhetorical debate but with little real consequence? I think the issue is important, because how scientists regard this question infl uences their thinking about the mechanisms of evolution. Viruses have their own, ancient evolutionary history, dating to the very origin of cellular life. For example, some viral- repair enzymes which excise and resynthesize damaged DNA, mend oxygen radical damage, and so on are unique to certain viruses and have existed almost unchanged probably for billions of years. Nevertheless, most evolutionary biologists hold that because viruses are not alive, they are unworthy of serious consideration when trying to understand evolution. They also look on viruses as coming from host genes that somehow escaped the host and acquired a protein coat. In this view, viruses are fugitive host genes that have degenerated into parasites. And with viruses thus 32

18 dismissed from the web of life, important contributions they may have made to the origin of species and the maintenance of life may go unrecognized. (Indeed, only four of the 1,205 pages of the 2002 volume The Encyclopedia of Evolution are devoted to viruses.) Of course, evolutionary biologists do not deny that viruses have had some role in evolution. But by viewing viruses as inanimate, these investigators place them in the same category of infl uences as, say, climate change. Such external infl uences select among individuals having varied, genetically controlled traits; those individuals most able to survive and thrive when faced with these challenges go on to reproduce most successfully and hence spread their genes to future generations. But viruses directly exchange genetic information with living organisms that is, within the web of life itself. A possible surprise to most physicians, and perhaps to most evolutionary biologists as well, is that most known viruses are persistent and innocuous, not pathogenic. They take up residence in cells, where they may remain dormant for long periods or take advantage of the cells replication apparatus to reproduce at a slow and steady rate. These viruses have developed many clever ways to avoid detection by the host immune system essentially every step in the immune process can be altered or controlled by various genes found in one virus or another. Furthermore, a virus genome (the entire complement of DNA or RNA) can permanently colonize its host, adding viral genes to host lineages and ultimately becoming a critical part of the host species genome. Viruses therefore surely have effects that are faster and more direct than those of external forces that simply select among more slowly generated, internal genetic variations. The huge population of viruses, combined with their rapid rates of replication and mutation, makes them the world s leading source of genetic innovation: they constantly invent new genes. And unique genes of viral origin may travel, finding their way into other organisms and contributing to evolutionary change. Data published by the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium indicate that somewhere between 113 and 223 genes present in bacteria and in the human genome are absent in well-studied organisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans that lie in between those two evolutionary 33

19 extremes. Some researchers thought that these organisms, which arose after bacteria but before vertebrates, simply lost the genes in question at some point in their evolutionary history. Others suggested that these genes had been transferred directly to the human lineage by invading bacteria. My colleague Victor DeFilippis of the Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute of the Oregon Health and Science University and I suggested a third alternative: viruses may originate genes, then colonize two different lineages for example, bacteria and vertebrates. A gene apparently bestowed on humanity by bacteria may have been given to both by a virus. In fact, along with other researchers, Philip Bell of Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, and I contend that the cell nucleus itself is of viral origin. The advent of the nucleus which differentiates eukaryotes (organisms whose cells contain a true nucleus), including humans, from prokaryotes, such as bacteria cannot be satisfactorily explained solely by the gradual adaptation of prokaryotic cells until they became eukaryotic. Rather the nucleus may have evolved from a persisting large DNA virus that made a permanent home within prokaryotes. Some support for this idea comes from sequence data showing that the gene for a DNA polymerase (a DNAcopying enzyme) in the virus called T4, which infects bacteria, is closely related to other DNA polymerase genes in both eukaryotes and the viruses that infect them. Patrick Forterre of the University of Paris-Sud has also analyzed enzymes responsible for DNA replication and has concluded that the genes for such enzymes in eukaryotes probably have a viral origin. From single-celled organisms to human populations, viruses affect all life on earth, often determining what will survive. But viruses themselves also evolve. New viruses, such as the AIDS-causing HIV-1, may be the only biological entities that researchers can actually witness come into being, providing a realtime example of evolution in action. Viruses matter to life. They are the constantly changing boundary between the worlds of biology and biochemistry. As we continue to unravel the genomes of more and more organisms, the contributions from this dynamic and ancient gene pool should become apparent. Nobel laureate Salvador Luria mused about the viral infl uence on evolution in May we not feel, he wrote, that in the virus, in their merging with the cellular genome and reemerging from them, we observe the units and process which, in the course of evolution, have created the successful genetic patterns that underlie all living cells? Regardless 34

20 of whether or not we consider viruses to be alive, it is time to acknowledge and study them in their natural context within the web of life. 35

21 Figure 1: Levels of Organization 36

22 Date Chapter 1: The Human Body, An Orientation 37

23 Body Systems Foldables 38

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25 Body Systems Foldables 40

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27 Figure 2: Label the orientation and direction in the diagram below 42

28 Figure 6: Label the Body Planes Frontal Planes are also called. The oblique plane is. The difference between a sagittal and mid-sagittal plane is 43

29 Figure 7: Label the nine abdominal regions, serosa membranes, and synovial cavity Serous Membranes 44

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31 Figure 8: Body Cavities 46

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33 Banana Dissection Banana Dissection Sketches: I. Cross Section of Inferior Piece Annotation: II. Sagittal Section of The Smallest Superior Piece 48

34 Banana Dissection Planes and directions are practiced using fruit and toothpicks. Be careful with the surgical instruments. Read and follow the instructions very carefully. Materials: Knives Marker Colored toothpicks Bananas Rulers Banana: 1. Cut the banana on a transverse plane. 2. On the superior portion, make a cut on the sagittal plane. 3. Place a blue toothpick on the most lateral side of your largest superior piece. 4. Draw the cross section of your inferior piece. 5. Draw the sagittal section of your smallest superior piece. 6. Place a yellow toothpick on the most superior portion of your banana on the midline. 7. Place an X on the right inferior posterior portion of your banana, 2 cm from the most caudal portion or area. 8. On the inferior piece, make an incision along the midline, moving in the inferior direction on the posterior side, 2 cm deep and 2 cm long. 9. Place a red toothpick on the anterior face on any point on the left side of the inferior piece. 10. Make an oblique cut on the superior piece, 1 cm from the right cranial side and 1 cm from the caudal left side. 49

35 Body Orientation Group Quiz 1. Describe how a body would be divided by each of the following types of planes: A. Frontal (Coronal) B. Midsagittal C. Sagittal D. Transverse 2. Identify the correct directional term to complete the following statements. A. The liver is to the diaphragm. B. Fingers are located to the wrist bones. C. The skin on the dorsal surface of your body is said to be located on your surface. D. The great (big) toe is to the little toe. E. The skin on your leg is to the muscle tissue in your leg. F. When you float face down in a pool, you are lying on your surface. G. The lungs and the heart are located to the abdominal organs. 3. Identify which cavity each of the following organs are in. Give the most specific term. A. Heart G. Lungs B. Liver H. Spleen C. Intestines I. Kidneys D. Spinal Cord J. Stomach E. Brain K. Urinary Bladder F. Sex Organs L. Pancreas 50

36 Body Orientation Group Quiz 4. Fill in the blank completing the analogy. A. anterior is to ventral as posterior is to B. superficial is to external as deep is to C. cranial is to caudal as superior is to D. medial is to lateral as proximal is to 5. Match the organs with the cavity they are in. CAVITY ORGAN 1. cranial cavity 2. spinal cavity 3. thoracic cavity 4. abdominal cavity 5. pelvic cavity A. stomach B. reproductive organs C. brain D. small intestines E. urinary bladder F. spinal cord G. liver, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen H. lung 6. Match the abdominal region with the descriptive term: 1. Iliac/inguinal A. on top of the stomach 2. Epigastric B. near the belly button 3. Lumbar/lateral C. under or below the stomach 4. hypochondriac D. below the ribs 5. Umbilical E. near the large bones of spinal cord 6. hypogastric/pelvic F. near the groin 51

37 Body Orientation Group Quiz 7. Label the following image with the correct Directional Terms. 52

38 Body Orientation Group Quiz 8. Label the following image with the correct planes. 53

39 Design an Experiment: Homeostasis Introduction: Homeostasis means maintaining a relatively constant state of the body s internal environment. The term used to describe a pattern of response to restore the body to normal stable level is termed negative feedback. When a stimulus (environment change) is met by a response that reverses (negates) the trend of the stimulus, it is negative feedback. As a result the internal environment is returned to normal. When a stimulus (environment change) is met by a response that promotes the trend of the stimulus, it is positive feedback. Pulse rate is constantly checked by receptors throughout your body. A stimulus such as elevated pulse rate leads to a reaction by an organ making the response. An appropriate response will return the pulse rate to normal, using negative feedback mechanisms. Purpose: To observe the amount of time it takes for homeostasis to return your body s pulse rate to normal after vigorous activity. I. Problem: Independent Variable (IV): the variable that the experimenter deliberately changes to test the dependent variable. Often denoted as (x), or the cause of the change. Dependent Variable (DV): the change that is observed and recorded as data as a result of the independent variable. Often denoted as (y), or the effect of the change. II. Hypothesis: 54

40 Design an Experiment: Homeostasis III. Experimental Procedure/Materials: List the steps. Circle the materials you need within the steps as you write them out. Number of repetitions? Control Group (comparison group, which could be negative or positive) Experimental Group (test group) Constants (what you maintain consistently the same amongst your control and experimental groups). Variables beyond our control 55

41 Design an Experiment: Homeostasis IV. Results: What kind of data? Quantified or Qualified? How would you record your data? Create a sample data table here. Graph, if appropriate. Individual Data Collective Data 56

42 Design an Experiment: Homeostasis Title: Y = X = V. Conclusion: 57

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53 Label each anterior anatomical region, then color the regions, so that each region can be distinguishable from another. 68

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55 Label each posterior anatomical region, then color the regions, so that each region can be distinguishable from one another. 70

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61 The Human Body: An Orientation Unit Concept Map (see reference page 20 for directions) 76

62 Summary of One Objective Choose one student objective from the start of the unit (page 19) and thoroughly explain the objective question in your writing. Use the vocabulary that was included in your concept map. Be specific with your language to communicate your understanding of the unit. Underline or highlight vocabulary words that were incorporated in your summary. -- OR Write a summary of the unit by thoroughly explaining the interrelationship between the terms that were used in the concept map. It is important that you define concepts in your explanation and include the vocabulary that was in your concept map. Underline or highlight the vocabulary words that were incorporated into your summary. 77

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