DERN PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
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1 DERN PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS Stephen T. Thornton University of Virginia Andrew Rex University of Puget Sound -ML Saunders Golden Sunburst Series SAUNDERS COLLEGE PUBLISHING A Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publisher Fort Worth Philadelphia San Diego New York Orlando Austin San Antonio Toronto Montreal London Sydney Tokyo
2 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 One Hundred Years Ago 1.1 Classical Physics of the 1890s 2 Mechanics 3 Electromagnetism 4 Thermodynamics The Kinetic Theory of Gases Waves and Particles Conservation Laws and Fundamental Forces 10 Fundamental Forces The Atomic Theory of Matter Outstanding Problems of 1895 and New Horizons 16 On the Horizon CHAPTER 2 Special Theory of Relativity Historical Perspective The Michelson-Morley Experiment Einstein's Postulates The Lorentz Transformation (optional) Time Dilation and Length Contraction 33 Time Dilation 33 Length Contraction Addition of Velocities Experimental Verification 43 Muon Decay 43 Atomic Clock Measurement 44 Velocity Addition Twin Paradox Spacetime Doppler Effect 51 Special Topic: Applications of the Doppler Effect CHAPTER 3 Relativistic Dynamics; General Relativity Relativistic Momentum Relativistic Energy 67 Total Energy and Rest Energy 70 Equivalence of Mass and Energy 71 Relationship of Energy and Momentum 72 Massless Particles Computations in Modern Physics 73 Binding Energy Electromagnetism and Relativity General Relativity Tests of General Relativity 85 Bending of Light 85
3 xii Gravitational Redshift Perihelion Shift of Mercury Light Retardation 3.7 Predictions of General Relativity Gravitational Waves Black Holes Special Topic: Gravitational Waves CHAPTER 4 The Experimental Basis of Quantum Theory Discovery of the X-Ray and the Electron Determination of Electron Charge Line Spectra 104 Special Topic: The Discovery of Helium Quantization Blackbody Radiation (optional) Photoelectric Effect 115 Experimental Results of Photoelectric Effect 116 Classical Interpretation 118 Einstein's Theory 119 Quantum Interpretation X-Ray Production Compton Effect Pair Production and Annihilation Essay: X-Ray Lithography 137 by Franco Cerrina University of Wisconsin, Center for X-Ray Lithography CHAPTER 5 Structure of the Atom The Atomic Models of Thomson and Rutherford Rutherford Scattering (optional) 144 Special Topic: Lord Rutherford of Nelson The Classical Atomic Model Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Successes and Failures of the Bohr Model Characteristic X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number Atomic Excitation by Electrons CHAPTER 6 Wave Properties of Matter 6.1 X-Ray Scattering 6.2 De Broglie Waves Bohr's Quantization Condition 6.3 Electron Scattering 6.4 Wave Motion 6.5 Waves or Particles? Special Topic: Single Particle Interference 6.6 Relationship Between Probability and Wave Function 6.7 Uncertainty Principle CHAPTER 7 The Quantum Theory The Schrödinger Wave Equation Normalization and Probability Boundary Conditions Time-Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation Expectation Values Infinite Square Well Potential Finite Square Well Potential (optional) Three-Dimensional Infinite Potential Well Particle in a Closed Box Simple Harmonic Oscillator (optional) Barriers and Tunneling Potential Barrier with E > V 0 Potential Barrier with E <V 0 Potential Well Alpha Decay Special Topic: Scanning Probe Microscopes CHAPTER 8 The Hydrogen Atom Application of the Schrödinger Equation to the Hydrogen Atom Solution of the Schrödinger Equation for Hydrogen (optional) 249
4 хш Separation of Variables 249 Relation Between the Quantum Numbers and rri( 250 Solution of the Radial Equation 251 Solution of the Angular and Azimuthal Equations Quantum Numbers 253 Principal Quantum Number n 254 Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number 254 Magnetic Quantum Number mg 255 Special Topic: Rydberg Atoms Magnetic Effects on Atomic Spectra The Normal Zeeman Effect Intrinsic Spin Energy Levels and Electron Probabilities (optional) 264 Selection Rules 265 Probability Distribution Functions Essay: Indeterminacy and Nonlocality in Quantum Mechanics 274 by David Griffiths Reed College CHAPTER 9 Many-Electron Atoms Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table Inert Gases Alkalis Alkaline Earths Halogens Transition Metals Lanthanides Actinides Total Angular Momentum (optional) Single-Electron Atoms Many-Electron Atoms LS, or Russell-Saunders, Coupling jj Coupling Anomalous Zeeman Effect (optional) CHAPTER 10 Statistical Physics Historical Overview 10.2 Maxwell Velocity Distribution Equipartition Theorem Maxwell Speed Distribution Classical and Quantum Statistics 313 Classical Distributions 313 Quantum Distributions Fermi-Dirac Statistics 317 Introduction to Fermi-Dirac Theory 317 Classical Theory of Electrical Conduction 318 Quantum Theory of Electrical Conduction Bose-Einstein Statistics 325 Blackbody Radiation 325 Liquid Helium 327 Special Topic: Superfluid 3 He CHAPTER 1 1 Molecules and Solids Molecular Bonding and Spectra 337 Rotational States 339 Vibrational States 340 Vibration and Rotation Combined Stimulated Emission and Lasers 345 Scientific Applications 350 Holography 351 Other Applications Structural Properties of Solids Thermal and Magnetic Properties of Solids 356 Thermal Expansion 356 Thermal Conductivity 358 Magnetic Properties 359 Diamagnetism 360 Paramagnetism 360 Ferromagnetism 362 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism Superconductivity 363 The Search for a Higher T c 370 Special Topic: Low-Temperature Methods 372 Superconducting Fullerenes Applications of Superconductivity 377 Josephson Junctions 377 Maglev 378 Generation and Transmission of Electricity 379 Other Scientific and Medical Applications
5 xiv Essay: Holography Modern Applications by Tung H. Jeong Lake Forest College CHAPTER 12 Semiconductor Theory and Devices Special Topic: Neutrino Detection Gamma Decay 13.8 Radioactive Nuclides Time Dating Using Lead Isotopes Radioactive Carbon Dating Uranium-Thorium Dating Band Theory of Solids 388 Kronig-Penney Model 390 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors Semiconductor Theory 393 Special Topic: The Quantum Hall Effect 396 Thermoelectric Effect Semiconductor Devices 402 Diodes 403 Bridge Rectifiers 405 Zener Diodes 405 Light Emitting Diodes 405 Photovoltaic Cells 406 Transistors 409 Field Effect Transistors 412 MOSFETs 412 Schotfky Barriers 412 Integrated Circuits Essay: Photovoltaic Devices by Lawrence L. Kazmerski National Renewable Energy Laboratory CHAPTER 13 The Atomic Nucleus 13.1 Discovery of the Neutron 13.2 Nuclear Properties Sizes and Shapes of Nuclei Intrinsic Spin Intrinsic Magnetic Moment 13.3 The Deuteron 13.4 Nuclear Forces 13.5 Nuclear Stability Nuclear Models 13.6 Radioactive Decay 13.7 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay Alpha Decay Beta Decay CHAPTER 14 Nuclear Interactions and Applications Nuclear Reactions Cross Sections Reaction Kinematics Reaction Mechanisms The Compound Nucleus Direct Reactions Fission Fission Reactors Special Topic: Early Fission Reactors Breeder Reactors Fusion Formation of Elements Nuclear Fusion on Earth Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions Special Applications Medicine Archeology Art Special Topic: How to Prove an Art Forgery Crime Detection Agriculture Mining and Oil Materials Industry Small Power Systems New Elements Particle Interactions in Matter (optional) Heavy Charged Particles Electrons Photons Neutrons Radiation Dose and Hazards (optional)
6 xv CHAPTER 1 5 Elementary Particles The Early Beginnings The Positron Yukawa's Meson The Fundamental Interactions Classification of Elementary Particles Leptons Hadrons Particles and Lifetimes Conservation Laws and Symmetries Symmetries Quarks Quark Description of Particles Color Confinement Hadron Masses The Families of Matter The Standard Model and GUTs Grand Unifying Theories Accelerators (optional) Special Topic: Experimental Ingenuity 15.9 Synchrotrons Linear Accelerators Fixed-Target Accelerators Colliders Particle Detectors (optional) Gas-Filled Ionization Detectors Scintillation Counters Semiconductors Cherenkov Counters Shower Counters Track Recording Detectors CHAPTER 16 Cosmology The Beginning and the End Evidence of the Big Bang 567 Hubble's Measurements 569 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation 572 Nucleosynthesis The Big Bang 575 Special Topic: Planck's Time, Length, and Mass Stellar Evolution 578 Eventual Fate of Stars Astronomical Objects Novae and Supernovae 16.5 Problems with the Big Bang Special Topic: Adaptive Optics 16.6 The Future The Demise of the Sun The Future of the Universe? Essay: The Hubble Constant and the Age of the Universe by Robert D. McClure Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, National Research Council, Canada APPENDIX 1 Fundamental Constants APPENDIX 2 Conversion Factors APPENDIX 3 Mathematical Relations APPENDIX 4 Periodic Table of the Elements APPENDIX 5 Mean Values and Distributions APPENDIX 6 Probability Integrals / = x" expl-ax^dx -4) APPENDIX 7 Integrals of the Type x"" 1 dx e -1 APPENDIX 8 Atomic Mass Table APPENDIX 9 Nobel Laureates in Physics Answers to Selected Problems Index A.1 A.2 A.4 A.5 A.6 A.8 A.10 A.12 A.35 A
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