Reading and Writing Strategies

Transcription

1 1 Reading and Writing Strategies Cmpiled by Margaret Dalpe fr Unin Academy Students Table f Cntents Reading Strategy Page Writing Strategy Page Identify the Main Idea 2 The Writing Prcess 13 Distinguish Fact and Opinin 3 Organizatinal Structure 14 Use Cntext Clues 4 Nnfictin Writing Types 15 Make Inferences 5 Narrative Writing Elements 16 Identify the Authr s Purpse 6 Thesis Statement vs. Tpic 17 Draw Cnclusins 7 Paragraph 18 Cmpare and Cntrast 8 Cmpsitin (Essay) 19 Establish Cause and Effect 9 Expsitry Essay 20 Paraphrase 10 Argumentative Essay 21 Summarize 11 Cmpare & Cntrast Essay 22 Make Predictins 12 Cause Effect Essay 23 Prblem Slutin Essay 24 Research Essay 25 Citatins 26 Business Letter 27 Friendly Letter 28

2 2 Reading Strategy: Identify the Main Idea The main idea is the central pint r message cnveyed (carried) in a passage r text. Identify the stated main idea when it is written as a tpic sentence r cnclusin. Identify the implied (hinted) main idea by cnsidering what significant details tell yu. Make cnnectins t identify the main idea. Cnnect details t determine what they have in cmmn. Fictin s characters and setting descriptins may prvide clues t the stry s main idea. Nnfictin s tpics may cnnect t an verall message. The main idea may be rganized as a part f the clear structure f the written piece: Find the thesis r paragraph tpic sentence. Track each paragraph s tpic sentence. Track ne main idea and all its details. Skim text t get a general idea f the tpic. T skim, yu glance thrugh a written wrk t get a general idea f what it is abut. Scan text fr details that supprt the main idea. T scan, yu run yur eyes ver the text t lcate specific infrmatin r t find key wrds r ideas.

3 3 Reading Strategy: Distinguish Fact and Opinin A fact is smething that can be prved. An pinin is a persn s judgment r belief and cannt be prved. Fact is infrmatin that can be prved with evidence. Opinin may be supprted by evidence, but cannt be prven. Generalizatin is a cnclusin supprted by facts. Overgeneralizatin is a cnclusin that verstates the facts. Use clue wrds t identify pinins, generalizatins, and vergeneralizatins. Opinins usually are indicated by wrds that cmmunicate judgment, like best r wrst, r wrds that suggest the writer s feelings r beliefs. Generalizatins use wrds that shw cnnectins between ideas such as therefre, s, because. Overgeneralizatins ften use wrds that make extreme statements, such as always, everything, anything, nthing, never, and nly. Ask questins t evaluate an authr s supprt fr the pinin. A valid pinin can be supprted by facts r by experts. A faulty pinin cannt be supprted by facts; instead it is supprted by ther pinins and ften ignres facts that cntradict it. Faulty pinins ften shw bias, an unfair preference r dislike fr smething. The authr s wrd chice can affect the feeling f a wrk. Dentatin is the dictinary definitin, while cnntatin gives negative r psitive assciatins. Use text structure, r the way infrmatin is rganized, t evaluate factual supprt. Cmparisn and cntrast shws similarities and differences gruped tgether. Cause and effect shws cnnectins, reasns, and results. Chrnlgical rder shws what happens first, next, & last.

4 4 Reading Strategy: Use Cntext Clues Cntext clues are the text arund a wrd that helps yu figure ut the meaning f an unfamiliar wrd. Preview t identify unfamiliar wrds. As yu identify unfamiliar wrds, lk fr clues in the cntext t determine a pssible meaning fr each unfamiliar wrd by using: Synnym r definitin: wrds that mean the same as the unfamiliar wrd Antnym: wrds that are ppsite in meaning Explanatin: wrds that give mre infrmatin abut the unfamiliar wrd Sentence rle: the way the wrd is used (part f speech) Reread and read ahead t find cntext clues and clarify meaning. When yu have figured ut a pssible meaning, substitute the wrd, insert it, in place f the unfamiliar wrd and reread the sentence. If it makes sense, yur meaning is prbably crrect. If it des nt make sense, read ahead t lk fr mre cntext clues, r lk the wrd up in a dictinary. Use cntext and cntext clues t help yu understand technical language. The wrds surrunding an unfamiliar wrd r phrase can help yu clarify its meaning. Pictures can als prvide clues.

5 5 Reading Strategy: Make Inferences When yu make inferences, yu use the infrmatin in a text t make lgical assumptins abut infrmatin that is nt stated. Use details in a stry as clues, r evidence, t infer unstated infrmatin. Ntice details like these: What the characters say abut ne anther. What the characters d and hw they behave. Put the details tgether t make assumptins. Making inferences is a way f reading between the lines f a stry t discver meaning behind actins and events. Identify cnnectins in a stry t infer the authr s meaning: Cnnect characters actins t reasns and utcmes. Cnnect events t reasns and utcmes. Recgnize emtinal appeals and define their cnnectin t the authr s meaning. Recgnize appeals t emtins. Evaluate any factual evidence that remains.

6 6 Reading Strategy: Identify the Authr s Purpse The authr s purpse is his r her reasn fr writing a particular wrk f literature. Recgnize details that indicate the authr s purpse. T infrm, an authr might use facts and technical language. T persuade, an authr might include reasns that lead readers t agree with an pinin. (Read critically: questin and evaluate the authr s statements and check facts.) T entertain, an authr might use facts that amuse, intrigue, hrrify, r fascinate readers. (Read fr enjyment: respnd t images, ideas, and characters.) Analyze details that reveal an authr s purpse. General purpse (t infrm, persuade, r entertain) Specific purpse (t capture a particular feeling) Evaluate whether the authr has achieved his r her purpse. As yu read, use a graphic rganizer t help yu evaluate this. Preview text t set a purpse fr yur wn reading. Take a quick lk at the title, the illustratins, and a sample paragraph: What is the tne r attitude f the authr? D the pictures and captins seem designed t prvide infrmatin r t entertain? As yu skim the text, d yu see statistics, qutatins frm experts, and facts? What d the first sentences f the paragraphs intrduce facts, pinins, r anecdtes?

7 7 Reading Strategy: Draw Cnclusins Drawing cnclusins means making decisins r frming pinins by cnnecting imprtant details. Analyze characters in rder t draw cnclusins abut them. Analyze characters statements, wrds, and actins: Lk fr statements that reveal underlying ideas and attitudes. Analyze interactins that shw hw characters treat each ther. Ntice actins that create a clear pattern f behavir. Make cnnectins t frm cnclusins. Decide what the pattern f behavir tells yu abut the character. Use a graphic rganizer such as cause-effect, cmpare- cntrast, r sequence f events t map ut yur bservatins and help yu make cnclusins. Make generalizatins, which means make a brad statement r rule that applies t many examples. Ntice cmmn elements in infrmatin yu read. Draw n cmmn experiences yu ve had in life r have read in ther places. Verify (make sure) that the generalizatin applies t all situatins it describes.

8 8 Reading Strategy: Cmpare and Cntrast T cmpare things, explain hw they are alike; t cntrast things, explain hw they are different. Ask questins t cmpare and cntrast: Ntice similarities and differences in characters, settings, mds, and ideas. Ask questins: Hw is ne character, idea, r event different frm anther? Hw is this stry similar t anther I have read? Hw is this character s experience, this idea, r this event different frm my wn? Cmpare and cntrast characters by finding similarities and differences amng the peple in a stry: Identify each character s perspectives, r the way he r she understands the wrld. Create a graphic rganizer t map the main character s actins, emtins, and ideas as cmpared t thse f the ther characters. Cmpare and cntrast a summary t the riginal: Find the main idea. Find the crucial details that give meaning t the plt r an understanding f the characters. Lk fr an explanatin f the wrk s underlying meaning. Interpret literary devices that deepen meaning thrugh cmpare and cntrast: An analgy is a figurative descriptin (a descriptin that relies n figures f speech r symblism) that cmpares tw r mre things that are similar in sme ways, but are therwise unalike. A metaphr describes ne thing as if it were smething else. Her eyes were littering diamnds. A simile uses like r as t cmpare tw unlike things. Her eyes glittered like diamnds.

9 9 Reading Strategy: Establish Cause and Effect A cause is the reasn smething happens. An effect is what happens as a result. Use backgrund infrmatin t link histrical causes with effects. The backgrund infrmatin abut a wrk set in a particular time and place usually includes the fllwing which yu can keep track f in a graphic rganizer r chart: the intrductin t a literary wrk infrmatin prvided in ftntes facts yu learned in ther classes prir knwledge yu have thrugh infrmatin yu already knw abut the tpic Ask questins t analyze cause-and-effect relatinships since the relatinship between events d nt always fllw the simple pattern f a single cause prducing a single effect: What are all the pssible causes that might have triggered this event? What are all the pssible effects r chains f effects that might result frm this cause? Are these events really related, r are they just cincidence r randm acts? Scan nline dcuments t find infrmatin. When yu scan an electrnic page, lk fr headings, links t ther pages r sites, r wrds that cntain useful infrmatin. Create graphic rganizers t track causes and effects. One f the mst useful rganizers is a simple set f bxes with arrws t shw cause leading t effect leading t cause. Remember that smetimes multiple causes can lead t a single, verall effect.

10 10 Reading Strategy: Paraphrase T paraphrase, restate text in yur wn wrds. Reread a line r passage in rder t clarify ideas and the writer s meaning befre yu paraphrase. Then, put it int yur wn wrds: Restate details mre simply. Use synnyms fr the writer s wrds. Lk up unfamiliar wrds s that yu knw the writer s meaning. Replace unusual wrds and sentence structure with language that is mre like everyday speech. Read accrding t punctuatin t help yu paraphrase. Using punctuatin will help yu grup wrds fr meaning, and recgnize cmplete thughts [especially in petry]: Pause briefly at cmmas, dashes, and semiclns. Pause lnger after end marks like perids. Restate the meaning f each cmplete thught in yur wn wrds. Simplify t the essence f the meaning. Paraphrase instructins in rder t perfrm a task. When yu read infrmatinal material, such as a manual, in rder t perfrm a task, paraphrase the directins. Fllw this checklist fr using technical manuals: 1. Read all the directins cmpletely befre starting t fllw them. 2. Lk fr clues such as bld type r capital letters that pint ut specific sectins r imprtant infrmatin. 3. Use diagrams t lcate and name the parts f the prduct. 4. Fllw each step in the exact rder given. 5. D nt skip any steps.

11 11 Reading Strategy: Summarize T summarize, make a shrt statement that presents the main ideas and mst imprtant pints. Reread t identify main ideas r events t write a summary. Reread and jt dwn (write) these main pints. Organize yur ntes by putting main events r pints in rder and crssing ff minr details that are nt imprtant fr an verall understanding f the wrk. Summarize by restating the majr events r ideas in as few wrds as pssible. Use graphics t help yu rganize main ideas r events t write yur summary. Identify the rganizing structure and then map it ut in a graphic diagram: chrnlgical rder, sequence f events, cause-effect, r cmpare-cntrast.

12 12 Reading Strategy: Make Predictins A predictin is a lgical assumptin abut what will happen next in a stry. Use prir knwledge t make predictins. As yu read, make infrmed guesses abut what will happen based n yur wn experiences. Supprt predictins with stry details. Ntice when the stry includes details that culd supprt predictins f mre than ne utcme. Lk fr details that suggest a certain utcme. Read ahead t cnfirm r crrect predictins. Use new details t change yur riginal predictin. Revise predictins based n new infrmatin. Use infrmatinal text aids (such as charts, pictures, and diagrams) and text features (such as headings, subtitles, and captins) t help make predictins.

13 13 Writing Strategy: The Writing Prcess The writing prcess is a 5-step writer s plan. Step 1: Prewrite Think f prewriting as the getting yur act tgether stage. This is when yu chse a tpic, brainstrm r make a list f everything yu knw abut a tpic, d research t take ntes, and rganize yur ideas int a chart r diagram. Step 2: Draft The draft is a place t put yur ideas n paper. Keep yur prewriting ntes nearby as yu shape yur ideas int sentences and paragraphs. Step 3: Revise After yu have yur ideas n paper in draft sentences and paragraphs, mve yur ideas arund. Yu may want t put them in a different rder, add new infrmatin, r take ut ideas that are nt n tpic. Check t make sure yur wrds are descriptive, yur sentences flw, and yu have elabrated t make yur ideas clear. Step 4: Prfread After yu write r type yur revised draft, lk again t make sure yu have n errrs in capitalizatin, punctuatin, r spelling. Step 5: Publish As yur last step, make a final cpy that has n mistakes. Yu are ready t have thers read yur wrk!

14 14 Writing Strategy: Organizatinal Structure Organizatin is the way a writer chses t arrange and present infrmatin in a single piece f nnfictin. Many pieces f nnfictin writing use a cmbinatin f these types f rganizatin, depending n the authr s reasns fr writing. Chrnlgical rganizatin presents details in time rder frm first t last r smetimes frm last t first. Spatial rder presents details in rder f hw they relate t ne anther physically, as in describing places and things. Order f Imprtance presents infrmatin in increasing r decreasing rder f imprtance, ften used fr persuasin. Cmpare-and-cntrast rganizatin shws the ways in which tw r mre subjects are similar and different. Cause-and-effect rganizatin shws the relatinship amng events. Prblem-and-slutin rganizatin identifies a prblem and then prpses a slutin. T decide what the main rganizatinal structure is: Identify hw the main idea is presented. See hw the imprtant details are rganized t supprt the main idea. Paraphrase yur wn presentatin r argument fr the main idea and ntice hw yu structure yur ideas. The authr uses rganizatin t cnvey (carry) meaning t the reader. The authr als uses tne and vice t cnvey meaning: Authr s tne is the writer s attitude tward his r her audience and subject. This tne can ften be described by a single adjective (describing wrd), such as frmal r infrmal, serius r playful, friendly r cld. Vice is a writer s distinctive way f speaking in his r her writing. Vice can be based n wrd chice, tne, sund devices, pace, and grammatical structure.

15 15 Writing Strategy: Nnfictin Writing Types Nnfictin writing discusses real peple, events, places, and ideas. The purpses fr writing nnfictin are t ffer insight int the lives f thers, share valuable infrmatin, reflect n new ideas, r weigh arguments abut imprtant issues. These are the mst cmmn types f nnfictin writing: Letters are written texts addressed t a particular persn r rganizatin. Memirs and jurnals cntain persnal thughts & reflectins. Web lgs als knwn as blgs are jurnals psted and frequently updated fr an nline audience. Bigraphies and autbigraphies are life stries. A bigraphy is a life stry written by anther persn. An autbigraphy is a writer s accunt f his/her wn life. Media accunts are nnfictin wrks written fr newspapers, magazines, televisin, radi, r webcasts. Essays and articles are shrt nnfictin wrks abut a particular subject. They may fllw the frmat f these types f writing: Persuasive writing is meant t cnvince the reader t adpt a particular pint f view r take a specific actin. Expsitry writing presents facts and ideas, r explains a prcess. Narrative writing tells the stry f real-life experiences. Reflective writing addresses an experience and includes the writer s insights abut the event s imprtance.

16 16 Writing Strategy: Narrative Writing Elements Narrative writing tells the stry f life experience. The stry may be nnfictin which tells a stry f real-life experiences, such as a memir r autbigraphy, r it may be fictin. Fictin narrative tells a stry abut made-up peple r animals. A gd stry has these ingredients: Characters are the peple r animals in the stry. A narratr tells the stry. The narratr might be a character (first-persn) r the narratr might be an utside persn wh is nt a character (third-persn). A stry has a setting where the actin takes place. A stry s actin is the plt. The plt is a series f events that includes a cnflict, r prblem, which needs t be reslved. A stry uses dialgue, r cnversatin amng characters, t mve the actin f the stry alng. Sensry details make the characters, setting, and actin cme alive. Sensry details appeal t the senses and help the reader see, hear, smell, feel, r taste what is happening in the stry. An interesting beginning, middle, and end make a gd stry. When a writer writes a stry, he r she chses a narratr t tell the stry. The stry is thus described frm the narratr s pint f view. First-persn pint f view is when the narratr is ne f the characters. Third-persn pint view is when an authr uses a narratr wh is nt a character in the stry. Omniscient third-persn is frm the pint f view f a nn-character narratr wh knws what all f the characters are thinking and what is happening t them that they as characters might nt realize. Narrative writers ften use a stry map t plan the stry elements.

17 17 Writing Strategy: Thesis Statement A thesis statement tells the writer s psitin n an issue with mre than ne side. The issue shuld be able t be debated and supprted with evidence. A strng thesis states a writer s perspective but als allws the reader t arrive at a cnclusin. The thesis statement shuld identify: tpic + pinin + supprt Here is an example f a debatable thesis: Pride and Prejudice is abut Elizabeth Bennet s effrt t vercme her wn prud behavir and discriminatin twards Mr. Darcy, as well as hw her family is affected by the haughtiness and precnceptins f the sciety arund them. This is a debatable thesis because it asks the reader, Des Elizabeth actually exhibit haughtiness and precnceptins? Is this why she desn t get alng with Mr. Darcy? Hw is Elizabeth s family affected by the haughtiness and precnceptins f the sciety arund them? Avid a nn-debatable thesis: Pride and Prejudice is abut five sisters and their jurney t find lve. This thesis is nn-debatable because it is undisputable. The paper is framed as a summary rather than as a literary analysis.) Writing Strategy: Tpic Sentence A tpic sentence is a statement f the main idea f the paragraph. A gd tpic sentence tells readers what the paragraph is abut. It tells the pint the writer wants t make abut the subject. T write a strng tpic sentence: 1. Review the details f yur subject. 2. Grup related details tgether. 3. Write a statement that puts the details tgether. Place the lcatin f the tpic sentence accrding t yur purpse: Place yur tpic sentence at the beginning f the paragraph t fcus readers attentin. Place yur tpic sentence in the middle f the paragraph when yu must lead int yur main idea. Place yur tpic sentence at the end f a paragraph t emphasize yur main idea. The rest f the sentences in the paragraph are supprting sentences. They will develp, explain, r supprt the tpic sentence: Use facts. Supprt yur key idea by prviding prf. Use statistics. A statistic is a fact, usually stated using numbers. Use examples, illustratins, r instances. An example, illustratin, r instance is a specific thing, persn, r event that demnstrates a pint. Use details. Details are the specifics they are the parts that make yur pint r main idea clear by shwing hw all the pieces fit tgether.

18 18 Writing Strategy: Paragraph A paragraph is a cllectin f ideas where all the sentences relate t ne anther (unity) and the ideas are arranged in a lgical rder (cherence). A paragraph shuld fllw this basic structure: Yur first sentence shuld pen up the reader s interest and shuld intrduce the main tpic. Expand n the tpic with at least three sentences supprting yur ideas, with facts, reasns, examples, statistics, cmparisn, r an anecdte. Cnclude with a sentence which summarizes r reasserts yur pinin, but des nt have the same wrding. Prewriting Steps: 1. Read the assignment/rubric and cnsider what t write. 2. Cllect facts r backgrund related t yur paragraph tpic. 3. Write dwn yur wn ideas. 4. Chse the main idea f yur paragraph. 5. Organize yur facts and ideas t develp yur main idea. Writing Steps: 1. Get yur ntes, pre-writing diagrams, and writing materials. 2. Write the tpic sentence, supprting sentences and clsing sentence. 3. Write clear and simple sentences t express yur meaning. 4. Fcus every sentence n the main idea f yur paragraph. 5. Use the dictinary, thesaurus, r synnyms t help yu find additinal wrds t express yur ideas. Prfreading and Editing Steps: 1. Check t be sure yur paragraph has a tpic sentence. 2. Make sure yur supprting sentences fcus n the main idea. 3. Make sure yu have a strng clsing sentence. 4. Check yur grammar, spelling, capitalizatin, and punctuatin. 5. Reread yur assignment/rubric t see if yu ve stayed n tpic.

19 19 Writing Strategy: Cmpsitin (Essay) A cmpsitin is the creatin f a wrk by putting all the parts tgether. T write an effective cmpsitin, include these parts: The Intrductin. The intrductin intrduces the tpic f yur cmpsitin. It begins with a strng lead, a first sentence that captures the reader s interest. The lead is fllwed by a thesis statement, the key pint f yur cmpsitin. Usually, the thesis statement is fllwed by a few sentences that utline r describe hw yur will make yur key pint. The Bdy. The bdy f a cmpsitin has several paragraphs that develp, explain, and supprt the key idea expressed in the thesis statement. In the same way that they sentences f a paragraph have unity and cherence, the paragraphs in a cmpsitin shuld als wrk tgether t supprt the thesis statement. The Cnclusin. The cnclusin is the final paragraph f the essay. The cnclusin restates the thesis and summarizes the supprt. Often, the cnclusin includes the writer s reflectin r bservatin n the tpic. An effective cnclusin ends n a memrable nte, with a qutatin, a call t actin, r a frceful statement. We cmpse different types f essays: Persnal Narrative: a stry frm yur wn experiences. Infrmatinal r Explanatry: an essay r expsitry reprt n a tpic yu have read abut, bserved, r researched. Argumentative r Evaluative: an essay based n a psitin yu take and supprt with reasns; in a persuasive essay, yu present and supprt yur psitin and als ask the reader t d, think, r believe smething.

20 20 Writing Strategy: Expsitry r Explanatry Essay Expsitry writing infrms r explains. The infrmatin yu include in expsitry writing is factual. Effective expsitry writing reflects a well-thught-ut rganizatin. It includes a clear intrductin, bdy, and cnclusin: Intrductin: a clear statement f the tpic Bdy: facts, examples, and ther details supprting the tpic Cnclusin: a summary and/r lgical result. Types f rganizatinal structures fr expsitry writing include: Cmpare and cntrast analyzes the similarities and differences between tw r mre things Cause and effect essay explains the reasns why smething happened r the results an event r situatin will prduce. Prblem and slutin describes a clear set f steps t achieve a result and explains and defends the prpsed slutin. Hw t writing explains hw t d r make smething. Break the prcess dwn int steps: name the prcess, identify the materials used, and list the steps in rder. Use sequence wrds in yur directins. Descriptive writing describes peple, places, events, setting, r things. T describe an event r place, describe the things that happened in sequential rder r physical arrangement. T describe peple, include sensry details, similes and metaphrs t give the character dimensin and life. Summary is a brief statement that includes nly the main ideas and significant supprting details written in yur wn wrds. Research writing is the prduct f gathering infrmatin and explring a subject f interest t guide a reader thrugh a tpic, shwing why each fact matters and what the verall picture f the subject is.

21 21 Writing Strategy: Argumentative Essay An argumentative essay is a brief wrk in which a writer presents the case fr r against a particular essay. In writing, an argument is a lgical and thrugh analysis f and supprt fr a pint f view. It is nt a ht-headed, emtinal debate. The purpse f an argumentatin is t cnvince, persuade, r analyze. Tw imprtant subgrups f argumentative writing are: Evaluative writing. Evaluatin is writing that examines the features r elements f ne r mre tpics and attempts t describe, cmpare and cntrast these features r elements in rder t reach a cnclusin. Persuasive writing. Persuasin is writing that attempts t cnvince peple t accept a psitin r take a desired actin. Argumentative writing has three parts: Intrductin: an pening that grabs the reader s attentin fllwed by a clear thesis statement which tells the writer s psitin n an issue with mre than ne side. Supprting Arguments: facts, examples, and ther details that prvide reasns that supprt the writer s argument r psitin. In sme cases, the argument may be fllwed by a cunter-argument where the ppsing view is presented and supprted with facts, examples, and details. Chse reasns strategically: Cnvince: Use reasns based n definitin, cmparisn, likelihd r prbability, and evidence. Appeal t the lgic. Persuade: Use reasns based n traditins, custms, and values. Appeal t the emtinal whle persn f the reader. Analyze: Use examples frm the text itself; add reasns based n definitin, cmparisn, and evidence. Cnclusin: a summary and/r lgical result that prves the authr s psitin r uphlds the pinin. In the case f a persuasive argument, the writer will make a call t actin which asks the reader t think, believe r d smething in accrd with the writer s psitin. When a cunter-argument is intrduced, the writer will use evidence t disprve the cunter-argument.

22 22 Writing Strategy: Essay: Cmpare & Cntrast Structure A cmpare and cntrast essay analyzes the similarities and differences between tw r mre things. A gd cmpare and cntrast analysis can help yu make decisins, r even change yur perspective. A cmpare and cntrast rganizatinal structure includes: A tpic invlving tw r mre things that are neither nearly identical nr extremely different. Details illustrating bth similarities and differences. Clear rganizatin that highlights the pints f the cmparisn Decide n yur purpse fr cmparing and cntrasting: T persuade yur reader t d r believe smething, emphasize details that prve yur pint. T instruct yur reader r prvide infrmatin, think f questins that yur reader wuld prbably ask, and answer them in yur essay. T entertain with a persnal experience r insight, r t make yur reader laugh, use vivid language t cnvey the humr, beauty, r ther qualities f yur subject. T shape a cmpare and cntrast discussin: 1. Describe the similarities and the difference in tw r mre items r describe the advantages and disadvantages. 2. Address the same features r questins abut each subject. 3. Organize the essay in a subject-by-subject r a feature-by-feature methd. Use ne f these methds: Blck Methd: Present all details abut ne subject first. Next present all the details abut the secnd, and s n. Pint-by-Pint Methd: First, discuss ne aspect f bth subjects. Next, discuss anther aspect f bth subjects, etc. 4. Use the final paragraph t summarize yur main ideas.

23 23 Writing Strategy: Essay: Cause Effect Structure A cause and effect essay explains the reasns why smething happened r the results an event r situatin will prbably prduce. Cause and effect explanatins help us make sense f ur wrld and discver new pssibilities. Its rganizatinal structure includes: A well-defined tpic that can be cvered in a few paragraphs. Detailed, factual explanatins f events r situatins and the relatinships amng them. Clear rganizatin with transitins that indicate the relatinships amng details. The relatinships between events and/r tpics will frm the fundatin f yur analysis. Use a graphic rganizer t shw the cnnectin between events that are cause and events that happen as a result, effects. T-charts and flw diagrams are useful. Organize yur events lgically: Many causes / single effect: If yu re writing abut a single event with many causes, devte ne paragraph t each cause and fllw these paragraphs with ne paragraph abut the effect. Single cause / many effects: If yur tpic invlves a single event r situatin that has prduced many effects, devte ne paragraph t each effect. Series f causes and effect: If yur tpic cnsists f a series f causes and effects, rganize yur bdy paragraphs chrnlgically. Draft yur paragraphs: 1. Yu can begin either with a cause and list its effects, r begin with an effect and list its causes. Cnnect ne event t a series f ther events and analyze why r what happened t cnnect the events. 2. Write detailed sentences in the rder in which the effects r the causes happened. Highlight each sentence that sums up an event r cnditins. Number each in the rder f ccurrence r imprtance. 3. Draw arrws cnnecting each step in numbered rder. If any arrws pint backward, rerganize sme f yur details s that all f the arrws pint frward.

24 24 Writing Strategy: Essay: Prblem Slutin Structure The purpse f a prblem and slutin essay is t describe a prblem and ffer ne r mre slutins t it. An effective prblem and slutin essay describes a clear set f steps t achieve a result and explains and defends the prpsed slutin. A prblem and slutin essay requires cmbining the strategies used t write an argumentative / persuasive essay and an expsitry / hw t essay. Frequently cause and effect is the rganizatinal structure writers use t identify the first fur plus the final parts f the prblem and slutin (create a flw chart). Sequence is frequently used t address the fifth part f the essay, the Implementatin Plan (step-by-step list). 1. The Prblem is usually a situatin that invlves negative r undesirable effects n peple. Yu shuld describe the prblem in sensry terms: what it lks, sunds, r feels like. 2. The Underlying Cause is the reasn the Prblem is happening. It is the surce f the prblem, and it is what must be slved r reslved in rder t fix the Prblem. 3. Ptential Slutins are ideas yu think might slve the Underlying Cause. Remember, yur slutin must fix the Underlying Cause t keep the Prblem frm returning. 4. A Synthesized Slutin is the best chice frm amng the Ptential Slutins t slve the Underlying Cause. Often, yu will cmbine the best features f several ptential slutins t cme up with ne final, synthesized slutin. 5. The Implementatin Plan explains hw yu will put yur slutin int actin. Explain this in a step-by-step fashin. Yur Implementatin Plan shuld als supprt yur chice f slutins by explaining hw each step f the implementatin addresses r fixes a part f the Underlying Cause. Many Implementatin Plans als include a timeline r deadline. 6. Anticipated Results describe hw yu predict the Prblem will g away and what the situatin will be like in place f the Prblem. Many Results have measurable utcmes.

25 25 Writing Strategy: Infrmatinal r Research Essay The purpse f infrmatinal writing is t present infrmatin abut a tpic. Infrmatinal writing has these features: Gives imprtant infrmatin abut a tpic Presents a main idea, which is supprted by facts May include infrmatin frm several surces Draws a cnclusin based n the infrmatin given Has a lgical rganizatin, using transitins t cnnect ideas In additin t facts, infrmatinal writing may present pinins. A writer can present bth facts and pinins with a bias. Facts can be prven t be true. Opinins are judgments that peple make based n their beliefs. Bias is an unfair slant that a writer gives t a tpic, usually representing nly ne pint f view r nly a prtin f the facts. T find infrmatin, use a reliable surce that meets these pints: Current (nly ne r tw years ld and/r recently updated) Respnsible authr Website is established and maintained by experts Website s purpse is unbiased Yur nte taking shuld fllw these steps: 1. Lcate a reliable surce. 2. Skim t make sure the surce is what yu need. 3. Read carefully fr authr s purpse, pint f view, and facts. 4. Paraphrase and jt dwn key ideas n nte cards r ntebk. 5. Dedicate a nte card r ntebk page fr each tpic and main supprting pint in yur reprt. 6. Write dwn the surce as a citatin. 7. Organize yur nte cards int an utline.

26 26 Writing Strategy: Citatins The purpse f citatin is t give credit t the riginatr r surce f the idea. A citatin is required even in yu put the fact in yur wn wrds. If the authr f a surce yu use presents an idea r argument f his wn, and yu include that idea, yu need t give him r her credit. MLA Citatin Guidelines: In text (parenthetical) citatin: In MLA style, referring t the wrks f thers in yur text is dne by using what is knwn as parenthetical citatin. This methd invlves placing relevant surce infrmatin in parentheses after a qute r a paraphrase. The authr's last name and the page number(s) frm which the qutatin r paraphrase is taken must appear in the text: Rmantic petry is characterized by the "spntaneus verflw f pwerful feelings" (Wrdswrth 263). Wrdswrth extensively explred the rle f emtin in the creative prcess (263). When a surce has n knwn authr, use a shrtened title f the wrk instead f an authr name: We see s many glbal warming htspts in Nrth America likely because this regin has "mre readily accessible climatic data and mre cmprehensive prgrams t mnitr envirnmental change..." ("Impact f Glbal Warming" 6). Wrks Cited Page: A Wrks Cited Page is actually a list f the surces that yu cited in yur paper. Thus, if a surce is listed n yur Wrks Cited page, it must be cited in yur paper. And if a surce is cited in yur paper, it must be listed n yur Wrks Cited page. Basic rules: Begin yur Wrks Cited page n a separate page at the end f yur research paper. It shuld have the same ne-inch margins and last name, page number header as the rest f yur paper. Label the page Wrks Cited (d nt italicize the wrds Wrks Cited r put them in qutatin marks) and center the wrds Wrks Cited at the tp f the page. Duble space all citatins, but d nt skip spaces between entries. Indent secnd and subsequent lines f citatins by 0.5 t create a hanging indent. List page numbers f surces efficiently, when needed. If yu refer t a jurnal article that appeared n pages 225 thrugh 250, list the page numbers n yur Wrks Cited page as Nte that MLA style uses a hyphen in a span f pages. Capitalizatin and punctuatin: Capitalize each wrd in the titles f articles, bks, etc, but d nt capitalize articles (the, an), prepsitins, r cnjunctins unless ne is the first wrd f the title r subtitle: Gne with the Wind, The Art f War, There Is Nthing Left t Lse. Use italics (instead f underlining) fr titles f larger wrks (bks, magazines) and qutatin marks fr titles f shrter wrks (pems, articles) Listing authr names: Entries are listed alphabetically by the authr's last name (r, fr entire edited cllectins, editr names). Authr names are written last name first; middle names r middle initials fllw the first name: (Burke, Kenneth) Electrnic surces: MLA n lnger requires the use f URLs in MLA citatins. Fr instructrs r editrs wh still wish t require the use f URLs, MLA suggests that the URL appear in angle brackets after the date f access. Break URLs nly after slashes: Aristtle. Petics. Trans. S. H. Butcher. The Internet Classics Archive. Web Atmic and Massachusetts Institute f Technlgy, 13 Sept Web. 4 Nv See

27 27 Writing Strategy: Business Letter A business letter is a frmal letter intended fr readers with whm the writer is nt persnally acquainted. An effective business letter has these elements: Includes six parts: 1. heading: the address and business affiliatin f the writer; als includes the date sent. 2. inside address: where the letter will be sent. 3. salutatin: greeting that is punctuated by a cln (:). 4. bdy: paragraphs that state the writer s purpse. 5. clsing: a curteus ending, such as Yurs truly, 6. signature: writer s handwritten name abve the writer s typed name. Fllws an accepted frmat: a. Blck: each part f the letter begins at the left margin b. Mdified Blck: the heading, clsing, and signature are indented t the center f the page. Uses frmal language t cmmunicate respectfully, regardless f the letters cntent.

28 28 Writing Strategy: Friendly Letter A friendly letter is any infrmal letter based n a persnal relatinship with the reader. An effective friendly letter has these elements: Includes five parts: 1. heading: the writer s address, and the date sent. 2. salutatin: a greeting fllwed by a cma (,). 3. bdy: paragraphs which give detail f persnal interest. 4. clsing: a friendly ending, such as Lve, r Yurs, 5. signature: handwritten name f the writer. Uses a cmma after the greeting. Indents each paragraph s first line. Uses a versin f mdified blck style, in which the heading, clsing, and signature align t the right f center. Uses infrmal r semifrmal language, ften featuring the lively expressin f feelings r amusement.