Geomorphology for Engineers

Transcription

1 Geomorphology for Engineers Edited by P. G. Fookes, E. M. Lee and G. Milligan Whittles Publishing CRC PRESS

2 Contents Foreword Preface Dedication Biographies 1. Introduction to Engineering Geomorphology Peter Fookes and Mark Lee xi xiii xv xvii 1.1 Preface Geomorphology, landforms and the nature of modern engineering geomorphology Techniques in engineering geomorphology Summary 26 References - 26 Further Reading Weathering and geohazards Summary 54 References Sedimentology Colin J. R. Braithwaite 3.1 Introduction Weathering Sediment transport and deposition Sedimentary rocks Sedimentary facies and environments Summary 83 References Tectonics PART I CONTROLS 2. Climate and Weathering Mark Lee and Peter Fookes Climate Tropical climates Temperate climates Polar climates Climate classification Climate variability Extreme events Climate and flooding Global climate change The hydrological cycle Weathering Weathering and landscape Weathering products: engineering soils > 4.1 Geological structures Tectonic landforms Lithology and landforms Summary 106 References Stratigraphy Colin J. R. Braithwaite Introduction and basic principles Correlation Bedding and time Three kinds of stratigraphy Non-radiometric chronology Seismic stratigraphy The geological time scale Correlating and interpreting sequences

3 vi CONTENTS 5.9 Geological maps Summary 122 References The Quaternary Andrew Goudie 6.1 Introduction The late Cainozoic Abrupt change The last glacial cycle Interglacials Holocene The Quaternary in low latitudes Sea-level changes Summary 134 References Engineering Behaviour of Soils and Rocks George Milligan, Peter Fookes and Mark Lee Introduction Elements of behaviour Slope instability Geotechnical problems associated with different soil types Typical values of soil properties Closing remarks References PART II 8. Landslides James S Griffiths GEOMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES Introduction Description Landslide cause Landslide recognition Landslide activity and behaviour Landslide distribution and occurrence Landslides: susceptibility, hazard and risk Planning and undertaking a landslide investigation Landslide stabilisation Conclusion 214 References 215 Acknowledgements 217 Active Tectonic Environments and Seismic Hazards James V. Hengesh, and William R. Lettis 9.1 Introduction Earthquake occurrence and magnitude scaling Types of fault displacement Seismic source characterisation Probabilistic seismic hazard assessment and treatment of uncertainty Liquefaction and related ground deformation Implications for engineering 259 References Rivers Mark Lee 10.1 Introduction River channel changes Channel form: regime theory Planform types Bank erosion and instability Bed scour Floodplain accretion River terraces: phases of aggradation and incision Floods Sediment transport The significance for conservation Soft engineering and river restoration Summary: the catchment approach to river engineering 284 References 285

4 CONTENTS vii 11. Soil Erosion Mark Lee and John Charman 11.1 Introduction Types of erosion features Detachment: erosivity of rainfall Transport: running water Transport: erosivity of wind Resistance to erosion: soil erodibility and plant cover Erosion hazard assessment The Universal Soil Loss Equation Erosion control methods and materials Summary 316 References Subsidence 12.1 Subsidence environments Subsidence on clay Subsidence on peat Hydrocompaction of collapsing soils Subsidence on permafrost Subsidence on limestone and gypsum Salt subsidence Volcanic subsidence Implications for engineering on naturally cavernous ground Subsidence due to mining Tectonic subsidence Summary 341 References Glacial erosion and entrainment of sediment Depositional processes and classification of tills Contemporary glacial environments: land system models Engineering in glacial environments Conclusions: recommendations to engineers working in glacial or glaciated environments 372 References Periglacial Forms and Processes H. Jesse Walker 14.1 Introduction Permafrost distribution Periglacial processes Ground ice and permafrost Periglacial landforms Periglacial soils River ice, lake ice, and sea ice Engineering and fossil periglacial forms Engineering and present-day permafrost environments 394 '; Oil industry Summary and future challenges 396 References Temperate Environments Kenneth J. Gregory PART III ENVIRONMENTS AND LANDSCAPES 13. Glacial Environments Lewis A. Owen and Edward Derbyshire 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Physics of glaciers Deposits, sediments and the landscape Water movement Human activity Summary References

5 viii CONTENTS 16. Hot Drylands Mark Lee and Peter Fookes 16.1 Introduction Desert landscapes Zone I: the uplands Zone II: footslopes and fans Zone III: plains Zone IV: base level plains Surface erosion and instability Excavation Behaviour of desert soils Aggregates Water and sediment problems Dune mobility Aggressive salty ground Summary 450 References Savanna Michael F. Thomas 17.1 Introduction to savanna environments The nature of the regolith in savanna areas Landform assemblages and surface materials Surface processes and geohazards in the savanna Summary 471 References Acknowledgements Hot Wetlands Ian Douglas 18.1 The tropical rainforest environment Weathering and soil characteristics Soil characteristics on different rock types Rivers and alluvial landforms Volcanic terrain Karst terrain Slope instability and landsliding Extreme events and major geomorphological problems in hot wetlands Summary 498 References Mountain Environments John Charman and Mark Lee 19.1 Introduction Rocks, climate and weathering Mountain terrain model Access and routing Large landslides Debris flows and torrents Snow melt and flash floods Landslide dams Glacial lake outburst floods Snow avalanches Ice avalanches Construction materials Summary 529 References Estuaries and Deltas Warren E. Grabau, H. Jesse Walker and Mark Lee \ Estuaries and deltas: introduction 535 Estuaries Deltas Depositional environments Summary References 21. Coastal Environments Julian Orford Introduction Perspectives affecting our understanding of the coastal zone Process and response controls in the coastal zone Sediments in the coastal zone 576

6 CONTENTS ix 21.5 Coastal organisation Effects of morphology on coastal zone structure Controls on coastal morphology Key clastic coastal depositional morphology Conclusion Summary 599 References Continental Shelves Colin Jago 22.1 Introduction Morphology of continental margins Major controls of shelf sedimentation Shelf hydrodynamic regime Properties of shelf sediments Organism-sediment interaction Patterns of shelf sedimentation The shoreface and coastal zone bypassing Muddy shelves Tide-dominated sandy shelves Wave and storm-dominated sandy shelves Preservation of relict features Preservation of nearshore marine patterns Summary 629 References Volcanic Landscapes 23.1 Plate tectonics and volcanoes Basaltic volcanic landscapes Explosive volcanoes Mud volcanoes Summary 659 References Karst Terrains 24.1 Soluble rocks terrains Surface landforms of karst Underground features of karst Types of karst terrain Summary 683 References Loess Edward Derbyshire and Xingmin Meng 25.1 Introduction Loess Terrain Engineering properties of loess Key engineering geomorphological issues Conclusions 723 References 724 Acknowledgements Chalk Landscapes Fred Bell and Martin Culshaw 26.1 Introduction Geomorphology of the Chalklands Chalk engineering Summary and conclusions 753 References 754 Acknowledgements Urban Geomorphology Ian Douglas 21A Introduction Problems of siting and planning urban developments Impact of urban activities on geomorphic processes Landform creation by urbanisation Remediation and Prevention Summary 776 References

7 x CONTENTS APPENDICES Appendix A1 Appendix A2 Appendix A3 Visual Identification 782 Identification, Description and Classification of Soils 789 Identification, Description and Classification of Rocks 804 Appendix A4 Appendix A5 Appendix A6 INDEX Geomorphological Mapping Soil Erosion Assessment Units, Scales and Conversions