b Blackwell Science Environmental Geology PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

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1 Environmental Geology PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE Fred G. Bell Department of Geology and Applied Geology University of Natal, Durban, South Africa b Blackwell Science

2 Preface, ix 1 Introduction, Planning and geology, I 1.2 Conservation, restoration and reclamation of land, Geological hazards and planning, Risk assessment, Hazard maps, Morphological maps, Engineering geomorphological maps, Environmental geological maps, Engineering geological maps, Geographical information systems, 29 2 Volcanic activity, Introduction, Volcanic form and structure, Types of central eruption, Volcanic products: volatiles, Volcanic products: pyroclasts, Volcanic products: lava flows, Mudflows or lahars, Volcanic hazard and prediction, Methods of prediction, Assessment of volcanic hazard and risk, Dealing with volcanic activity, 56 3 Earthquake activity, Introduction, Intensity and magnitude of earthquakes, Ground conditions and seismicity, Effects of earthquakes, Methods of seismic investigation, Earthquake prediction, Assessment of movements along faults, Aseismic investigation, Accelerographs, Seismic hazard and risk, Seismic zoning, Induced seismicity, 78 Mass movements, Soil creep and valley bulging, Causes of landslides, Classification of landslides, Falls, Slides, Flows, Landslides in soils, Landslides in rock masses, Monitoring slopes, Monitoring movement, Monitoring groundwater, Monitoring acoustic emissions or noise, Landslide hazard, investigation and mapping, Methods of slope control and stabilization, Rockfall treatment, Alteration of slope geometry, Reinforcement of slopes, Restraining structures, Drainage, 110 River activity, The development of drainage systems, Fluvial processes, River flow, River erosion, River transport, Deposition of sediments, Floods, Hazard zoning, warning systems and adjustments, The design flood and flood control, 134 Marine activity, Waves, Force and height of waves, 140

3 6.1.2 Wave refraction, Tides, Beach zones, Coastal erosion, Beaches and longshore drift, Storm surges and marine inundation, Protective barriers, Stabilization of longshore drift, Tsunamis, Arid and semi-arid lands, Introduction, Wind action, Desert dunes, Stream action in arid and semi-arid regions, Flooding and sediment problems, Movement of dust and sand, Sabkha soil conditions, Salt weathering, Desertification, Irrigation, Glacial and periglacial terrains, Introduction, Glacial erosion, Glacial deposits: tills and moraines, Basic properties of tills, Compressibility and strength of tills, Fluvio-glacial deposits; stratified drift, Other glacial effects, Glacial hazards, Frozen ground phenomena in periglacial environments, Construction in permafrost regions, Frost heave, Water resources, The hydrological cycle, Reservoirs, Dam sites, Geology and dam sites, Groundwater, A note on basement aquifers, Springs, Water budget studies, Hydrogeological properties, Groundwater exploration, Assessment of permeability and flow in the field, Water quality and uses, Wells, Safe yield, Artificial recharge, Groundwater pollution, Landfill and groundwater pollution, Saline intrusion, Nitrate pollution, Other causes of groundwater pollution, Groundwater monitoring, Conjunctive use, Soil resources, Origin of soil, Soil horizons, Soil fertility, Pedological soil types, Basic properties of soil, Particle size distribution, Consistency limits, Soil classification, Shear strength of soil, Consolidation, Soil erosion, Estimation of soil loss, The Universal Soil Loss Equation, Soil erosion by wind, Erosion control and conservation practices, Conservation measures for water erosion, Conservation measures for wind erosion, Assessment of soil erosion, Soil surveys and mapping, Soils as a construction material, Gravels and sands, Clay deposits, refractory materials and bricks, Fills and embankments, Problem soils, Quicksands, Expansive clays, Dispersive soils, Collapsible soils, Quickclays, Soils of arid regions, Tropical soils, Peat, 357

4 12 Rock masses, their character, problems and uses, Rock types, Igneous rocks, Metamorphic rocks, Sedimentary rocks, Deformation and strength of rocks, Description of rocks and rock masses, Discontinuities, Description of discontinuities in rock masses, Strength of discontinuous rock masses and its assessment, Discontinuities and rock quality indices, Discontinuity surveys, Weathering, Mechanical weathering, Chemical and biological weathering, Engineering classification of weathering, Igneous and metamorphic rocks, Mudrocks, Carbonate rocks, Evaporitic rocks, Building, roofing and facing stones, Crushed rock, Concrete aggregate, Road aggregate, Lime, cement and plaster, 41 I 13 The impact of mining on the environment, Introduction, Metalliferous mining and subsidence Mining methods, Stabilization of old workings, 41 ~ Mining and sinkhole development, 41 ~ 13.3 Pillar workings, Old mine workings and hazard zoning Measures to reduce or avoid subsidence effects due to old mine workings, Old mine shafts, Longwall mining and subsidence, Measures to mitigate the effects of subsidence due to longwall mining, Surface mining, Strip mining and opencasting, Open pit mining, Blasting and vibrations, 434 t 2 u.1 i^-.>.l,,:.,:«.. 435,1 1 c Dredge mining,' Subsidence Subsit" associated with fluid abstraction, Waste materials from mining, Spoil heaps and their restoration I./, Waste waste disposal in tailings igs dams, !. 12 The] problem of acid mine drainage, i. 13 Waste waters and effluents from coal minimi. mining, Heap leaching, 45_ Other impacts, Waste and its disposal, Introduction, Domestic refuse and sanitary landfills, Design considerations for a landfill, Degradation of waste in landfills Attenuation of leachate, Surface and groundwater pollution Landfill and gas formation Hazardous wastes, 4"" I 14.4 Radioactive waste, 4 " Contaminated land,4~ Remediation of contaminated land, 4X Soil remediation, 48 > Groundwater remediation. 4X4 15 Environmental geology and health, Introduction. 48" The occurrence of elements, 49(1 1 V i Geochcmical surveys and maps. 49<s Some trace elements and health Arsenic Cadmium, Mercury, Mil le.id Iodine, 50? h Fluorine, " Selenium, 50" Zinc Molybdenum Some other trace elements and health Mineral dusts and health, 51 1

5 viii 15.6 Radon, Environmental geology and chronic disease, Land evaluation and site assessment, Introduction, Remote sensing, Infrared line scanning, Side-looking airborne radar, Satellite imagery, Aerial photographs and photogeology, Types of aerial photograph, Photogeology, Terrain evaluation, Land capability studies, Site investigation, Desk study and preliminary reconnaissance, Site exploration, Subsurface exploration in soils, Sampling in soils, Subsurface exploration in rocks, Geophysical exploration, Seismic methods, Resistivity methods, Electromagnetic methods, Magnetic and gravity methods, Drill-hole logging techniques, Cross-hole seismic methods, In situ testing, 556 Index, 563

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING INVESTIGATION HANDBOOK Second Edition

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING INVESTIGATION HANDBOOK Second Edition Roy E. Hunt Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York Singapore A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint,