Sedimentary Basins. Gerhard Einsele. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest

Transcription

1 Gerhard Einsele Sedimentary Basins Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget With 269 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest

2 Contents Part I Types of Sedimentary Basins 1 Basin Classification and Depositional Environments Introduction Tectonic Basin Classification Pre-, Syn-, and Post-Depositional Basins Basin Morphology and Depositional Environments 10 Part II Depositional Systems and Facies Models 17 2 Continental Sediments Glacial Deposits of Lowlands and Shallow Seas Continental Glacial Deposits Glaciomarine Sediments Fluvial Sediments, Alluvial Fans, and Fan Deltas Bed Forms, Sedimentary Structures, and Facies Elements Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas Various River Systems and Their Sediments Large-Scale Lateral and Vertical Evolution of Fluvial Systems Eolian Sediments Introduction Eolian Sands Clay Dunes Eolian Dust, Loess Volcaniclastic Sediments (Tephra Deposits) General Aspects and Terms Tephra Deposits on Land and Below the Sea Volcaniclastic Sediments in Basins of Various Tectonic Settings Alteration, Diagenesis, and Metamorphism of Volcaniclastic Rocks Lake Sediments Different Lake Systems and Their Sediments Recent and Ancient Examples of Lake Sediments Specific Features of Lakes and Lake Sediments 92 3 Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments (Including Carbonates) Beach and Shoreface Sediments Coastal Processes, Beach and Shoreface Sands Storms and Storm Deposits (Tempestites) Sediments of Tidal Flats and Barrier-Island Complexes Tidal-Influenced Environments and Sediments Sediments of Barrier-Island Complexes 121 l

3 vra Contents 3.3 Sediments of Shallow Seas (Including Carbonates) Predominantly Siliciclastic Sediments Carbonate Buildups and Reef-Lagoon Complexes Sediments of Marine Delta Complexes Types of Marine Deltas Sedimentary Processes and Facies of Various Delta Types Facies Architecture, Constructional and Destructional Phases Sediments of Adjacent Seas and Estuaries Introduction Water Circulation and Sediments Sedimentary History of Some Modern Adjacent Seas Oceanic Sediments General Aspects Water Circulation in the Oceans Hemipelagic and Pelagic Deep-Sea Sediments Overview Deep-Sea Carbonates and Carbonate Dissolution Red Clay and Manganese Nodules Sediments in Zones of Upwelling Siliceous Sediments Marine Phosphorite Deposits Sediments on Marginal and Oceanic Plateaus, Ridges, and Seamounts Gravity Mass Flow Deposits and Turbidites Gravity Mass Flows Turbidites and Deep-Sea Fan Associations Frosion and Reworking of Deep-Sea Sediments Special Depositional Environments and Sediments Green Marine Clays Oolitic Ironstones Red Beds Marine Evaporites Models for Evaporite Deposition Sequences, Sedimentary Structures, and Sedimentation Rates Diagenesis and Geochemical Characteristics of Evaporites Salt Structures Nonactualistic (Precambrian) Depositional Environments The Evolution of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Climate Precambrian Sediments Depositional Rhythms and Cyclic Sequences General Aspects Special Features and Examples of Rhythmic Bedding Depositional Cycles in Lakes, Fluvial and Deltaic Systems Cyclic Sequences in Lakes Sediment Successions in Fluvial and Deltaic Systems Sea Level Changes and Sequence Stratigraphy General Principles and Terms Changes in Sea Level and Storm Wave Base in Shallow Basins 291

4 Contents Sequence Stratigraphy in Continental Margin Settings Long-Term Cyclic Phenomena in Earth's History Superposition of Cycles of Various Orders and Differing Origin 307 Part III Subsidence, Denudation, Flux Rates, and Sediment Budget Subsidence General Mechanisms Controlling Subsidence Methods to Determine Subsidence of Sedimentary Basins Modeling of Rift Basins and Observed Subsidence Curves Passive Continental Margins Subsidence of Basins Related to Tectonic Loading, Subduction, and Strike-Slip Motion Denudation: Solute Transport and Flux Rates of Terrigenous Material Weathering and Soils Chemical and Mechanical Denudation Rates from River Loads Chemical Denudation Rates Mechanical Denudation from Solid River Load Chemical Versus Mechanical Denudation Rates Mineralogical Composition of Suspended River Loads Long-Term Denudation Rates from the Sediment Budget of Various Basins Tectonic Uplift, Denudation, and Geomorphology Long-Term Denudation Rates from Changes in Topography Geomorphological Consequences of Denudation Interrelationship Between Tectonic Uplift and Denudation Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter in Various Depositional Environments 10.1 General Aspects Average Sedimentation Rates Production and Preservation of Organic Matter General Aspects Organic Matter in the Oceans Organic Matter Preservation and Black Shales The Interplay Between Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill Introduction Simple Relationships Between Source Area on Land and Basin Fill Different Modes of Basin Filling Vertical and Lateral Facies Associations (Overview) 422 IX

5 X Contents Part IV Basin Evolution Basin Evolution and Sediments Rift Basins Rift Structures Examples of Young Rift Zones Sediments of Rift Basins Transition from Rift Basins to Continental Margin Basins Continental Margin and Slope Basins General Aspects Sediment Successions of Continental Margin Basins Sediment Successions on Continental Slopes Intracratonic Basins Associated with Mega-Rifting Permian to Mesozoic Basin Development in Europe (Overview) Mesozoic Sediments Between the North Sea and the Western Tethys Continental or Intracratonic Sag Basins Deep-see Trenches, Forearc and Backarc Basins General Features Deep-Sea Trenches Forearc Basins Backarc Basins Preservation and Recognition of Ancient Subduction-Related Basins Remnant and Foreland Basins Remnant Basins with Flysch Foreland Basins with Molasse Pannonian-Type Basins Pull-Apart Basins Basin-Type Transitions (Polyhistory Basins) 501 Part V Diagenesis and Fluid Flow Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis General Aspects of Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis Compaction, Compaction Flow, and Other Flow Mechanisms Principles of Chemical Diagenesis Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins and the Onset of Metamorphism Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis Hydrocarbons and Coal Source Rocks, Kerogen Types, and Hydrocarbon Potential Generation of Hydrocarbons Examples of Hydrocarbon Habitats Evolution of Coal 572 References 577 Subject Index 615