Sedimentary Environments:

Transcription

1 Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy Edited by H.G. Reading Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford THIRD EDITION b Blackwell Science

2 Contributors, xi Preface, xiii 1 Introduction, 1 H.G. Reading 1.1 Development of sedimentology and sedimentary geology, Scope and philosophy of this book, Organization of the book, 3 2 Controls on the sedimentary rock record, 5 H.G. Reading & B.K. Levell 2.1 Controlling factors, Sediment supply, 5 Terrigenous systems, 5 Biochemical and chemical systems, Climate, Tectonic movements and subsidence, Sea-level changes, Milankovitch processes and orbital forcing, Intrinsic sedimentary processes, Physical processes, Biological activity, Water chemistry, Volcanic activity, Normal vs. catastrophic sedimentation, Rates of sedimentation and preservation potential, 17 Facies Facies and sequences, 18 Rock facies definitions, 19 Facies relationships, associations and sequences, 20 in the subsurface, 21 Seismic facies, 22 Seismic-stratigraphic units and seismic sequences, 22 Rocks from the subsurface, 22 Wireline logs and log facies, 23 Sequence stratigraphy, 25 Models, 35 3 Alluvial sediments, 37 J.D. Collinson 3.1 Introduction, Alluvial processes, Erosional processes, Transport and depositional processes, Postdepositional alteration and pedogenesis, Present-day alluvial settings, River channel classification and controls, Coarse-grained bedload rivers, Sandy bedload rivers, Mixed-load rivers, 49

3 3.3.5 Suspended-load rivers, Overbank areas, 53 Levees and crevasse splays, 53 Floodplains, Soils and their distribution, Alluvial fans, 57 Gravity-flow fans, 59 Fluvial fans, 59 Terminal fans, Ancient alluvial sediments, Alluvial facies, Conglomeratic facies, Sandstone channel facies, Fine-grained facies, Palaeosols, Biological and biochemical sediment, Larger-scale geometry, organization and controls, Bounding surfaces, Architectural elements, Fan conglomerates, Channel conglomerates, Channel sandbodies, Overbank sequences and palaeosols, Channel-overbank relationships, Coal in alluvial settings, Incised palaeovalleys, Ephemeral stream and terminal fan deposits, 81 4 Lakes, 83 M.R. Talbot and P.A. Allen 4.1 Introduction, Diversity of present-day lakes, Properties of lake water, Kinetics of lake water, Surface waves, Currents in lakes, Seiches, Chemistry of lake waters, Clastic sedimentation, Beaches and other nearshore zones, Deltas, Offshore zones, Chemical and biochemical sedimentation, Lacustrine carbonates, 92 Inorganic precipitation, 93 Biogenic carbonate production, Siliceous deposits, Iron-rich deposits, Saline minerals, Organic matter, Rhythmites, Lake-level changes, Ancient lake deposits, Criteria for recognition of ancient lake deposits, Ancient lacustrine facies, Ancient clastic-dominated basins, Lakes with steep margins, 106 The Ridge Basin Group, Wave-dominated lakes, 108 The Kap Stewart Formation, Shallow, low-relief basins, 109 The Mercia Mudstone Group, Ancient carbonate-dominated basins, Low energy water bodies, High energy margins, 112 The Glenns Ferry Formation, Microbial build-ups, 112 The Chalk Hills Formation, Mixed clastic-carbonate basins, The Devonian Orcadian Basin of northeast Britain, Evaporitic lake basins, The Green River Formation (Palaeogene) of Utah, Wyoming and Colorado, The Ebro basin (Oligocene-Miocene), Spain, Organic-matter-dominated basins, The Fort Union Formation, The Calaf and Mequinenza basins, Oil shales, Cycles in lake deposits, The Green River Formation, The Rubielos de Mora basin, The Newark Supergroup, Economic importance of lake deposits, Desert aeolian systems, 125 G.A. Kocurek 5.1 Introduction, The desert aeolian system, Setting, Overview of processes, Aeolian processes and theory, Sediment transport, Dunes and airflow, Lee-face processes and stratification, Accumulation, Modelling of sets through space and time, Generation of bounding surfaces, Generation of aeolian sequences, Preservation of aeolian sequences, Present-day aeolian systems, Occurrence, accumulation and preservation, Variations, Classification of dunes, Dunes, airflow, stratification and cycles, Interdune areas, 144

4 5.4.6 Sand sheets, Pleistocene Holocene sequences, Ancient aeolian systems, The record, Sequences, System reconstruction, Dune reconstruction, Clastic coasts, 154 H.G. Reading & J.D. Collinson 6.1 Introduction, Shoreline processes, Sediment supply, Sediment delivery to the basin, Zonation of the shoreline profile, Wave processes, Wave-induced nearshore currents, Fairweather vs. storm conditions, Tides, Wind, Gravitational processes, Coastal models and classifications, Rocky coasts, Coarse-grained gravel-rich coasts, Feeder systems, Reworking at the delta front, Resedimentation processes and slope failures, Coarse-grained coastal facies associations, Controls on coarse-grained coastal systems and sequences, Ancient coarse-grained coastal depositional systems, 178 Coarse-grained systems in low-energy basins, 178 Wave-affected coarse-grained systems, River deltas, Delta plain, Delta front, Prodelta, Deformational features on delta front and prodelta slope, 187 Shallow-water resedimentation processes, 187 Deep-water resedimentation processes, Deltaic facies sequences and their boundaries, 190 Progradational sequences, 191 Transgressive sequences, the abandonment phase, Ancient river deltas, 197 Ancient fluvial-dominated and fluvial - waveinteraction deltas, 197 Ancient wave-dominated deltas, 202 Ancient tide-dominated deltas, 206 Ancient delta deformation, Non-deltaic siliciclastic coasts, Beach-ridge strandplains, Chenier plains, Tidal flats, Barrier-island/lagoons, Estuaries, Coastal sequences, 219 Progradational sequences, 219 Transgressive sequences, 220 Incised-valley sequences, Ancient non-deltaic siliciclastic coasts, 225 Ancient progradational sequences, 226 Ancient transgressive sequences, Shallow clastic seas, 232 H.D. Johnson & C.T. Baldwin 7.1 Introduction, Definition, Historical background, Clastic shelf models and classification, Process-response models and shelf hydraulic regimes, Dynamic stratigraphic models, Modern vs. ancient shelf seas, Modern tide-dominated shallow seas, Tides and tidal currents, Tide-dominated sand deposition, Tidal current transport paths: processes, bedforms and facies, Offshore tidal sandridges, Modern wave- and storm-dominated shallow seas, Wave-and storm-generated processes, Storm-dominated deposition on transgressive shelves, Characteristics of modern shelf storm deposits, Hydrodynamic models of modern shelf storm deposits, Modern oceanic current-dominated shelves, Modern mud-dominated shelves, Ancient shallow clastic seas: facies recognition and interpretation, Ancient tide-dominated offshore facies, 257 Sedimentary structures and facies in offshore tidal deposits, Ancient wave- and storm-dominated offshore facies, 263 Sedimentary structures and facies in wave- and storm-dominated deposits, 263 Ancient offshore storm sand models, Ancient mud-dominated offshore facies, 266 Shelf mudstone facies oxygenation models, Ancient offshore shallow marine clastic sedimentation patterns: interaction of physical processes and relative sealevel fluctuations, Tide-storm interaction on Late Precambrian and ' Lower Palaeozoic shelves, 268 Offshore tide-storm depositional models, 270 Sand supply to Late Precambrian-Lower Palaeozoic shelves, Shallow marine sand deposition in an elongate, intracratonic rift basin: Upper Jurassic-Lower

5 Cretaceous of East Greenland, Shallow marine sand deposition along an active fault-controlled shelf margin: Bohemian Cretaceous Basin, Central Europe, 'Offshore bars' vs. lowstand shoreface deposits in the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway of North America, 276 Sandbody characteristics, 276 'Offshore bar' facies model, 276 Shoreface sequences in relation to relative changes in sea level, Marine evaporites: arid shorelines and basins, 281 AC. Kendall & G.M. Harwood 8.1 Introduction, Conditions of marine evaporite formation, Marine brines and their precipitates, Climatic controls on sea-water evaporation, Controls on evaporite deposition within basins, General features of evaporites, Basin-marginal and basin-central evaporites, Brine depths and evaporite facies, Sabkhas, Sabkha evaporite facies, Modern supratidal sabkhas, Modern depression sabkhas, Shallow-water evaporites, Shallow-water evaporite facies, 295 Evaporative carbonates, 295 Gypsum crusts, 295 Clastic gypsum, 296 Halite, 297 Potash salts, Modern salinas and Holocene salina sequences, Deep-water evaporites, Deep-water evaporite facies, The Dead Sea a modern deep-water evaporite basin, Ancient sabkha/salina evaporites, Ancient basin-marginal platform evaporites, Ancient basin-central evaporites, Evaporites and sequence stratigraphy, Basin-marginal evaporites, Basin-central evaporites, Shallow-water carbonate environments, 325 V.P. Wright & T.P. Burchette 9.1 Introduction, History of research, The role of organisms in carbonate systems, Major components of carbonate sediments, Controls on carbonate production and sedimentation, Variations in carbonate production and accretion, Sea-level changes and carbonate production/ accumulation, Carbonate platforms, Epeiric platforms, Isolated platforms, 333 Modern example Great Bahama Bank, 333 Ancient example The Triassic of the Dolomites, Italy, Shelves, Ramps, Drowned platforms, Carbonate depositional environments, Platform interiors (low energy), 348 Shoreline deposystems, 349 Peritidal cyclothems and stacking, Platform interior (high-energy) and platform margin carbonate sandbodies, 355 Platform interior sandbodies, 355 Platform margin sandbodies, Offshore carbonate deposystems, Carbonate slope deposystems, 361 Carbonate slope types, 362 Lithofacies, 365 Facies models, 365 Carbonate fans, 365 Slope aprons and base-of-slope aprons, Reefs, 368 Reef classification, 368 < Reef processes, 369 Controls on reef growth, 370 Reef facies and environments, 372 Reefs vs. sea level, Carbonate platforms and relative sea-level changes, General controls on carbonate sequence geometry, 378 Carbonates vs. siliciclastic systems, 378 Productivity variations with sea-level changes, 379 Sequence and parasequence stacking patterns, Ramps, 383 Systems tracts, Rimmed shelves, 385 Systems tracts, Isolated build-ups, 387 Systems tracts, Relative sea-level lowstands carbonate, evaporite and siliciclastic sediment partitioning, Evolutionary trends between platform types, Deep seas, 395 D.A.V. Stow, H.G. Reading &J.D. Collinson 10.1 Introduction-, 395

6 10.2 Processes and products, Pelagic and hemipelagic sedimentation, 397 Pelagic fallout, 397 Pelagites, 399 Hemipelagic advection, 401 Hemipelagites', 402 Cyclicity and the Milankovitch mechanism, 402 Black shales and their origin, Semi-permanent ocean bottom currents (contour currents), 404 Contourites, Resedimentation processes and deposits, 407 Rock falls, 408 Sediment creep, 408 Slides and. slumps, 408 Debris flows, 410 Liquified and fluidized flows, 412 Turbidity currents, 413 Turbidites, Facies description, Deep-water clastic systems, Controls on deep-water sedimentation, Classifications, terminology, elements and sequences, 419 Hierarchical schemes and elements, 420 An environmental classification, Submarine fans, Submarine ramps, Slope aprons, Basin plains, Contourite drifts, Deep-water pelagic and hemipelagic systems, Ocean basins and abyssal hills, Continental margins, banks and basins, Chalk, Glacial sediments, 454 J.M.G. Miller 11.1 Introduction, Characteristics of glaciers, Mass balance, Thermal regime, Types of glaciers, Processes, Mechanics of ice flow, Glacial erosion, Glacial sediment transport, Glacial deposition, Glaciotectonism, Related processes: water, resedimentation, wind, Modern glacial environments and facies, Subglacial zone, Supraglacial zone, Ice-contact proglacial zone, Glaciofluvial environments, Glaciolacustrine environments, Glaciomarine environments, Periglacial zone, Ancient glacial facies, Characteristics and recognition, Glacio-eustasy and glacio-isostasy, Glacial facies zones, 472 Terrestrial glacial facies zones, 472 Marine glacial facies zones, Stratigraphic architecture, Ancient glacial facies associations, 476 Terrestrial associations, 477 Marine associations, Ice ages in Earth history, Volcanic environments, 485 G.J. Orton 12.1 Introduction, Development of concepts, Distribution and products of volcanism, Relation to global tectonic processes, Types of magma and their origin, Magmatic processes and their effect, The physical behaviour of magma, Ascent and storage of magma, Eruption processes and facies, Volcanic fragmentation processes and their products, The eruption and dispersal of pyroclastic sediment, Pyroclastic fall, Pyroclastic gravity currents: flow and surge deposits, 503 Pyroclastic transport and deposition: general considerations, 504 Subaerial pyroclastic surges, 505 Subaerial pyroclastic flows, 507 Subaqueous pyroclastic flows, Lava flows, Explosion craters, calderas and volcanotectonic basins, 510 Caldera facies, 512 Caldera tectonics, Sedimentary processes in volcanic terranes, Volcanic landslides and debris avalanches, Lahars, Coastal processes, The stratigraphic record of volcanism, Syn-eruptive versus inter-eruptive periods, Geometry of volcanic successions and their controls, Classification of volcaniclastic deposits, Volcanic landforms, Monogenetic basaltic volcanoes, 529 J 123.\ Scoria cones and lava fields, Tuff rings and maars, Tuff cones, 532

7 Flood-basalt volcanic fields, Monogenetic silicic volcanoes, Polygenetic basaltic volcanoes, Oceanic spreading ridges and abyssal plains, Oceanic seamounts and lava-shields, Oceanic plateaux and aseismic ridges, Polygenetic intermediate volcanoes, Sites of deposition, Effect of regional stress regime, Types of intermediate volcano, Subaerial convergent-margin sedimentation, 549 High-standing stratovolcanoes without calderas, 549 Intermediate caldera volcanoes, Marine sedimentation within and adjacent to volcanic arcs, 554 Deep-sea trenches, 555 Forearc basins, 556 Island arcs and intra-arc basins,"559 Backarc basins, Polygenetic silicic volcanoes, Analysis of ancient volcanic successions, Reconstructing volcanic landscapes, Facies models in volcanic settings, Problems and perspectives, 568 H.G. Reading 13.1 Historical review, Economic aspects, Environmental aspects, Future studies, 570 References, 574 Index, 669