Frederick K. Lutgens. Edward J. Tarbuck. Illustrated by Dennis Tasa PEARSON

Transcription

1 Frederick K. Lutgens Edward J. Tarbuck Illustrated by Dennis Tasa PEARSON

2 Contents Book, Media, and MasteringMeteorology" Walkthrough MasteringMeteorology" Media Preface xv Digital & Print Resources xviii 1 Introduction to the Atmosphere 2 Focus on Concepts 3 Focus On the Atmosphere 4 Weather in the United States 4 Meteorology, Weather, and Climate 5 Atmospheric Hazards: Assault by the Elements 6 The Nature of Scientific inquiry 7 Hypothesis 8 Box 1.1 Monitoring Earth from Space 8 Theory 9 Scientific Methods 9 Earth as a System 10 Earth's Spheres 10 Earth System Science 12 The Earth System 13 Composition of the Atmosphere 14 Box 1.2 Origin and Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere 15 Carbon Dioxide 16 Variable Components 16 Ozone Depletion: A Global Issue 18 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 19 Pressure Changes 19 Eye on the Atmosphere Temperature Changes 20 Eye on the Atmosphere The Ionosphere 23 Concepts in Review 24 Give it Some Thought 26 Problems 27 What Causes the Seasons? 30 Earth's Orientation 31 Solstices and Equinoxes 33 Box 2.1 Calculating the Noon Sun Angle 34 Box 2.2 When Are the Seasons? 36 Energy, Temperature, and Heat 37 Forms of Energy 37 Eye on the Atmosphere Temperature 38 Heat 38 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 39 Conduction 39 Convection 39 Radiation 40 Laws of Radiation 42 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 2.3: The Ultraviolet Index 42 What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation? 44 Transmission 44 Absorption 44 Reflection and Scattering 45 Eye on the Atmosphere The Role of Gases in the Atmosphere 48 Heating the Atmosphere 48 The Greenhouse Effect 49 Earth's Energy Budget 50 Annual Energy Budget 50 Latitudinal Energy Budget 52 Concepts in Review 53 Give it Some Thought 54 Problems 56 3 Temperature 58 Focus on Concepts 59 For the Record: Air-Temperature Data 60 2 Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere 28 Focus on Concepts 29 Basic Calculations 60 Isotherms 60 Box 3.1 North America's Hottest and Coldest Places 61 Earth-Sun Relationships 30 Earth's Motions 30 viii

3 Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature 62 Differential Heating of Land and Water 63 Ocean Currents 64 Altitude 66 Geographic Position 67 Albedo Variations 68 Eye on the Atmosphere World Distribution of Temperatures 70 Eye on the Atmosphere Cycles of Air Temperature 72 Daily Temperature Cycle 72 Box 3.2 Latitude and Temperature Range 73 Variations in Daily Temperature Range 75 Annual Temperature Cycle 75 Eye on the Atmosphere Temperature Thermometers 76 Measurement 76 Box 3.3 How Cities Influence Temperature: The Urban Heat Island 76 Instrument Shelters 79 Temperature Scales 79 Applying Temperature Data 81 Degree Days 81 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 3.4: Heat Waves 82 Indices of Human Discomfort 82 Concepts in Review 85 Give it Some Thought 86 Problems 87 Vapor Pressure and Saturation 94 Eye on the Atmosphere Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Temperature 97 How Relative Humidity Changes 97 Box 4.1 Dry Air at 100 Percent Relative Humidity? 98 Natural Changes in Relative Humidity 99 Box 4.2 Humidifiers and Dehumidifiers 99 Dew-Point Temperature 100 How Is Humidity Measured? 101 What's Your Forecast? 102 Adiabatic Temperature Changes and Cloud Formation 103 Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation 103 Processes That Lift Air 105 Orographic Lifting 105 Frontal Lifting 105 Convergence 105 Box 4.3 Precipitation Records and Mountainous Terrain 106 Localized Convective Lifting 107 Eye on the Atmosphere The Critical Weathermaker: Atmospheric Stability 108 Types of Stability 108 Stability and Daily Weather 112 How Stability Changes 112 Eye on the Atmosphere Box 4.4 Orographic Effects: Windward Precipitation and Leeward Rain Shadows 114 Temperature Inversions and Stability Moisture and Atmospheric Stability ss Focus on Concepts 89 Concepts in Review 117 Give it Some Thought 119 Problems 120 Water on Earth 90 Movement of Water Through the Atmosphere 90 Water: A Unique Substance 90 Water's Changes of State 91 Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor 91 Latent Heat 91 Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air 93 How Is Humidity Expressed? 94 5 Forms of Condensation and Precipitation 122 Focus on Concepts 123 Cloud Formation 124 How Does Air Reach Saturation? 124 The Role of Condensation Nuclei 124 Growth of Cloud Droplets 124

4 Cloud Classification 125 Cloud Forms 125 Cloud Height 126 High Clouds 126 Middle Clouds 127 Low Clouds 127 Clouds of Vertical Development 128 Cloud Varieties 129 Eye on the Atmosphere Types of Fog 131 Fogs Formed by Cooling 131 Evaporation Fogs 132 How Precipitation Forms 134 Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process 134 Eye on the Atmosphere Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision-Coalescence Process Forms of Precipitation 138 Rain, Drizzle, and Mist 139 Snow and Graupel 140 Sleet and Freezing Rain or Glaze 140 Hail 141 Rime 143 Precipitation Measurement 143 Standard Instruments 144 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 5.1: Worst Winter Weather 144 Measuring Snowfall 145 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar 146 Eye on the Atmosphere What's Your Forecast? 147 Planned and Inadvertent Weather Modification 148 Planned Weather Modification 148 Displaying Atmospheric Pressure on Surface and Upper-Air Maps 160 Why Does Air Pressure Vary? 162 Pressure Changes with Altitude 162 Pressure Changes with Temperature 163 Pressure Changes with Moisture Content 163 Box 6.1 Air Pressure and Aviation 164 Pressure Changes Caused by Airflow Aloft 165 Factors Affecting Wind 165 Pressure Gradient Force 165 Coriolis Force 166 Friction 168 Winds Aloft Versus Surface Winds 169 Straight-line Flow and Geostrophic Winds 169 Curved Flow and Gradient Winds 171 Surface Winds 172 Eye on the Atmosphere How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion 174 Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones 174 Other Factors Promoting Vertical Airflow 175 Eye on the Atmosphere Wind Measurement 176 Measuring Wind Direction 176 Eye on the Atmosphere Measuring Wind Speed 178 Box 6.2 Wind Energy: An Alternative with Potential 178 Concepts in Review 180 Give it Some Thought 182 Problems 183 Inadvertent Weather Modification 151 Concepts in Review Circulation of the Atmosphere 184 Give it Some Thought 153 Problems 155 Focus on Concepts 185 Scales of Atmospheric Motion 186 Microscale Winds Air Pressure and Winds ise Focus on Concepts 157 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 158 What Is Atmospheric Pressure? 158 Measuring Atmospheric Pressure 158 Mesoscale Winds 186 Macroscale Winds 186 Wind Patterns on All Scales 186 Local Winds 188 Land and Sea Breezes 188

5 Box 7.1 Dust Devils 188 Mountain and Valley Breezes 189 Chinook (Foehn) Winds 190 Katabatic (Fall) Winds 190 Country Breezes 190 Global Circulation 191 Single-Cell Circulation Model 191 Three-Cell Circulation Model 191 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 7.2: Santa Ana Winds and Wildfires 192 Pressure Zones Drive the Wind 194 Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts 194 Eye on the Atmosphere The Real World: Semipermanent Pressure Systems 195 Monsoons 197 The Asian Monsoon 197 The North American Monsoon 198 The Westerlies 199 Why Westerlies? 199 Waves in the Westerlies 200 Jet Streams 200 The Polar Jet Stream 200 Subtropical Jet Stream 202 Jet Streams and Earth's Heat Budget 202 Global Winds and Ocean Currents 203 Ocean Currents Influence Climate 203 Ocean Currents and Upwelling 205 El Nino, La Nina, and the Southern Oscillation 205 Eye on the Atmosphere Global Impact of El Nino 206 Global Impact of La Nina 207 Southern Oscillation 208 Global Distribution of Precipitation 209 Zonal Distribution of Precipitation 209 Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents 210 Eye on the Atmosphere Concepts in Review 211 Give it Some Thought Air Masses 216 Focus on Concepts 217 What Is an Air Mass? 218 Classifying Air Masses 219 Source Regions 219 Air-Mass Classification 219 Air-Mass Modification 220 Properties of North American Air Masses 221 Continental Polar (cp) and Continental Arctic (ca) Air Masses 221 Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air over Warm Water 223 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 8.1: The Siberian Express 224 Maritime Polar (mp) Air Masses 225 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 8.2: An Extraordinary Lake-Effect Snowstorm 226 Eye on the Atmosphere Eye on the Atmosphere Maritime Tropical (mt) Air Masses 228 Continental Tropical (ct) Air Masses 230 Concepts in Review 231 Give it Some Thought 232 Problems Midlatitude Cyclones 234 Focus on Concepts 235 Frontal Weather 236 What Is a Front? 236 Warm Fronts 236 Cold Fronts 238 Stationary Fronts 239 Occluded Fronts 239 Drylines 240 Eye on the Atmosphere Midlatitude Cyclones and the Polar-Front Theory 242 Polar-Front Theory 242 Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 244 What's Your Forecast? 244 Eye on the Atmosphere Idealized Weather of a Midlatitude Cyclone 247 Flow Aloft and Cyclone Formation 248 Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation 249 Divergence and Convergence Aloft 249 What's Your Forecast? 250 Flow Aloft and Cyclone Migration 251 Where Do Midlatitude Cyclones Form? 252 Sites of Midlatitude Cyclone Formation that Affect North America 252 xi

6 Patterns of Movement 253 A Modern View: The Conveyor Belt Model 254 Warm Conveyor Belt 254 Eye on the Atmosphere Cold Conveyor Belt 255 Dry Conveyor Belt 255 Anticyclonic Weather and Atmospheric Blocking 256 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 9.1: The Midwest Flood of Case Study of a Midlatitude Cyclone 258 Concepts in Review 261 Give it Some Thought 263 Problems Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 266 Focus on Concepts 267 What's in a Name? 268 Thunderstorms 268 Distribution and Frequency 269 Thunderstorms and Climate Change 269 Air-Mass Thunderstorms 270 Stages of Development 270 Occurrence 272 Severe Thunderstorms 272 Supercell Thunderstorms 273 Squall Lines 275 Mesoscale Convective Complexes 276 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 10.1: Flash Floods 276 Lightning and Thunder 278 What Causes Lightning? 278 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 10.2: Downbursts 279 Lightning Strokes 280 Thunder 281 Eye on the Atmosphere Tornadoes 282 Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes 284 Tornado Development 284 Tornado Climatology 285 Profile of a Tornado 287 Tornado Destruction and Tornado Forecasting 288 Tornado Intensity 288 Loss of Life 289 Tornado Forecasting 289 Eye on the Atmosphere Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 10.3: Surviving a Violent Tornado 291 What's Your Forecast? 292 Concepts in Review 294 Give it Some Thought 297 Problems Hurricanes 298 Focus on Concepts 299 Profile of a Hurricane 300 Box 11.1 Conservation of Angular Momentum 302 Hurricane Formation and Decay 303 Hurricane Formation 303 From Tropical Disturbance to Hurricane 304 Hurricane Decay 304 Box 11.2 Naming Tropical Storms and Hurricanes 305 Hurricane Destruction 306 Saffir-Simpson Scale 307 Eye on the Atmosphere Storm Surge 308 What's Your Forecast? 309 Wind Damage 310 Heavy Rains and Inland Flooding 310 Estimating Hurricane Intensity 311 Dropsondes 311 Using Satellite Data 312 Eye on the Atmosphere Detecting, Tracking, and Monitoring Hurricanes 313 The Role of Satellites 314 Aircraft Reconnaissance 315 Radar and Data Buoys 315 Hurricane Watches and Warnings 316 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 11.3: Super Typhoon Haiyan 317 Hurricane Forecasting 318 Concepts in Review 318 Give it Some Thought 320 Problems 321 xii

7 12 Weather Analysis and Forecasting 322 Focus on Concepts 323 The Weather Business: A Brief Overview 324 Producing a Weather Forecast 324 Who's Who in Weather Forecasting? 325 Acquiring Weather Data 326 Surface Observations 326 Observations Aloft 326 Weather Maps: Depictions of the Atmosphere 328 Surface Weather Maps 328 Upper-Level Weather Charts 329 The Connection Between Upper-Level Flow and Surface Weather 333 Eye on the Atmosphere Modern Weather Forecasting 334 Numerical Weather Prediction 335 Ensemble Forecasting and Uncertainty 336 Other Forecasting Methods 337 Persistence Forecasting 337 Climatological Forecasting 337 Analog Method 338 Trend Forecasting 338 Weather Satellites: Tools in Forecasting 339 Types of Satellite Images 340 Eye on the Atmosphere Other Satellite Measurements 342 Types of Forecasts 342 Qualitative Versus Quantitative Forecasts 343 Short- and Medium-Range Forecasts 343 Long-Range Outlooks 344 Watches and Warnings 345 The Role of the Forecaster 346 Forecasting Tools 346 Box 12.1 Thermodynamic Diagrams 348 Forecasting Using Rules of Thumb 350 Sources and Types of Air Pollution 362 Primary Pollutants 362 Box 13.1 Air Pollution Changing the Climate of Cities 363 Eye on the Atmosphere Secondary Pollutants 366 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 13.2: The Great Smog Of Trends in Air Quality 369 Establishing Standards 369 Air Quality Index 370 Meteorological Factors Affecting Air Pollution 371 Wind as a Factor 371 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 13.3: Viewing an Air Pollution Episode from Space 372 The Role of Atmospheric Stability 373 Acid Precipitation 374 Extent and Potency of Acid Precipitation 375 Effects of Acid Precipitation 375 Eye on the Atmosphere Eye on the Atmosphere Concepts in Review 377 Give it Some Thought The Changing Climate 3so Focus on Concepts 381 The Climate System: A Key to Detecting Climate Change 382 The Climate System 382 Detecting Climate Change 383 Natural Causes of Climate Change 388 Plate Tectonics and Climate Change 388 Volcanic Activity and Climate Change 389 Variations in Earth's Orbit 391 Solar Variability and Climate 392 Forecast Accuracy 351 What's Your Forecast? 352 Box 14.1 Volcanism and Climate Change Geologic Past 392 in the Concepts in Review 353 Eye on the Atmosphere Give it Some Thought 355 Problems Air Pollution 35s Focus on Concepts 359 The Air Pollution Threat 360 Human Impact on Global Climate 395 Rising C02 Levels 395 The Atmosphere's Response 396 The Role of Trace Gases 396 Eye on the Atmosphere How Aerosols Influence Climate 399 xiii

8 What's Your Forecast? 400 Climate-Feedback Mechanisms 401 Types of Feedback Mechanisms 401 Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools 401 Some Consequences of Global Warming 402 Sea-Level Rise 402 The Changing Arctic 404 Increasing Ocean Acidity 405 The Potential for "Surprises" 406 Concepts in Review 407 Give it Some Thought World Climates 410 Focus on Concepts 411 Climate Classification 412 The Koppen Classification 412 World Climates An Overview 414 Climate Controls: A Summary 416 Latitude 416 Land and Water 416 Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds 416 Mountains and Highlands 416 Ocean Currents 417 Pressure and Wind Systems 417 Humid Tropical (A) Climates 417 The Wet Tropics (Af, Am) 417 Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw) 420 The Polar Climates (E) 437 The Tundra Climate (ET) 437 The Ice-Cap Climate (EF) 438 Highland Climates 439 Eye on the Atmosphere Concepts in Review 442 Give it Some Thought 444 Problems Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere 446 Focus on Concepts 447 Interactions of Light and Matter 448 Reflection 448 Refraction 448 Mirages 451 Box 16.1 Are Highway Mirages Real? 452 Rainbows 453 Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars 456 Box 16.2 Glories 458 Other Optical Phenomena 459 Coronas 460 Iridescent Clouds 460 Concepts in Review 461 Give it Some Thought 462 Box 15.1 Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest The Impact on Its Soils 420 The Dry Climates (B) 423 What Is Meant by "Dry"? 423 Subtropical Desert (BWh) and Steppe (BSh) 424 West Coast Subtropical Deserts 426 Middle-Latitude Desert (BWk) and Steppe (BSk) 427 Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C) 428 Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa) 428 The Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb) 429 Eye on the Atmosphere The Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean) Climate (Csa, Csb) 431 Humid Continental Climates with Severe Winters (D) 433 Humid Continental Climate (Dfa) 433 Severe & Hazardous Weather Box 15.2: Drought A Costly Atmospheric Hazard 434 The Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd) 436 xiv APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D APPENDIX E APPENDIX F APPENDIX G Glossary g-i Credits c-1 Index 1-1 Metric Units a-i Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map a-5 Relative Humidty and Dew-Point Tables a h Laws Relating to Gases a-13 Newton's Laws, Pressure-Gradient Forces, and Coriolis Force a-14 Saffir-Simpson Climate Data a-17 Hurricane Scale a-16