Atmospheric Moisture, Precipitation, and Weather Systems
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1 Atmospheric Moisture, Precipitation, and Weather Systems 6 Chapter Overview The atmosphere is a complex system, sometimes described as chaotic in nature. In this chapter we examine one of the principal components of that system, the precipitation system, and find that it is indeed complex, but within that complexity, there is a good deal of order to be found in its processes and patterns. We want to learn how precipitation is produced and how and where it is delivered. We trace our way through the atmospheric moisture system, beginning with a brief examination of water vapor, humidity, and condensation and then go on to the processes and causes of precipitation and their geographic circumstances, including the nature of storm systems such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. The chapter ends with some insights into the nature of violent storms and some of their consequences. Core Concept 1: Water Vapor Processes 2 condensation The delivery of water vapor to the atmosphere is driven by heat energy derived from solar radiation. 1 Figure 6.1 land evaporation cloud particles 1 ocean 3 evaporation precipitation PHYSICAL SYSTEMS Water vapor plays a central role in the formation of precipitation through phase changes and the absorption and release of energy. Figure 6.1 can be used to frame a presentation about the watervapor precipitation system. One approach is to follow the arrows
2 32 starting at step 1, and to consider the energy exchanges. For example, the arrow pointing upward at step 1 (evaporation) has energy input from solar radiation, but there are also small amounts of energy input by conduction from the water surface; the arrow between steps 3 and 1 requires gravitational energy. The concept of energy balance in a system can also be demonstrated through the energy used to create water vapor (the latent heat of evaporation) and to produce clouds (the latent heat of condensation). Using local climate data, the relationship between atmospheric temperature and relative humidity can be demonstrated. Why is the relative humidity generally higher during the morning? What is the diurnal pattern throughout the seasons? GEOGRAPHY The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is spatially and temporally variable. Teaching Strategies for Observation/Hands-on Learning Satellite images can be used to frame a presentation and investigation about the variability of water vapor in Earth s atmosphere at different spatial scales over time. Satellite photos of Earth showing the variable nature of cloud cover are available at this NASA website: At the continental scale, a 24-hour water vapor loop is available at this NOAA website: It is also possible to observe the local variability of water vapor using local weather-station data and satellite images available from a variety of sources on the Internet. Microscale variability of relative humidity can be made with a sling psychrometer. For instance, students can measure the relative humidity differentials between indoor and outdoor air. The results of the investigation can be extended into a discussion about the aspects of human comfort.
3 33 stability at 6000 m T = 10 C 6000 T = 10 C at 6000 m 5000 wet adiabatic rate altitude, meters freezing altitude COOLING snow turning into rain snow WARMING dry adiabatic rate C/100 m = wet adiabatic lapse rate ambient lapse rate air temperature, C dew point = 20 C T = 20 C 30 C starting temperature rain cloud formation at 1000 m Figure 6.10 Core Concept 2: Vertical Motion within the Atmosphere The vertical motion of an air parcel depends on its density relative to the density of the air around it. PHYSICAL SYSTEMS AND GEOGRAPHY Work, energy conversions, and feedback are inherent properties of adiabatic processes. The feedback they produce is both positive and negative and occurs at multiple geographic scales. Figure 6.10 can be used to illustrate the principles of work and energy conversion during adiabatic processes. As the air parcel rises it expands because of the decrease in density with altitude. Heat is the energy used for this expansion of the air. As a result the parcel s. The descending air on the lee side of the mountain is compressed, and thus the work represented here results in the conversion of kinetic energy into heat, and the temperature of the air rises. Ask the class: What are the energy conversions during these processes and what is the signature left in the atmosphere by the transition from a dry to wet adiabatic lapse rate? The systems perspective can be broadened by asking the class to: (1) identify the vegetation of the landscapes on the windward and lee sides of the mountain; (2) predict how the amount of precipitation produced on each side of the mountain would change if the mountain had a higher or lower elevation.
4 34 When an air parcel rises feedback occurs at multiple geographic scales. Positive feedback occurs within the parcel, as increased condensation generates a feedback loop of energy release through condensation and altitude gain. Negative feedback also occurs at the geographic scale of the regional atmosphere (and beyond) because the energy used in adiabatic processes represents one mechanism of the atmospheric system to reach a dynamic equilibrium of energy. Ask the class: At what scales does the negative feedback occur in this system? Core Concept 3: Precipitation The precipitation system is characterized by four mechanisms or types: orographic, cyclonic/frontal, convectional, and convergent. PHYSICAL SYSTEMS AND GEOGRAPHY (a) mountain range There is a causal link between the four types of precipitation and the local/regional geography. hotspot (b) air mass (c) air Figure 6.13 shows the four types of precipitation. This Figure can be used to support a demonstration/discussion of their relationships with the local and regional geography. For example, Figure 6.15 illustrates the connection between local topography and the orographic type of precipitation. Not as obvious is the geographical factors that contribute to convectional precipitation. Ask the class: In the midlatitudes, what might cause the onset of precipitation within an urban area during a summer afternoon? Is it possible for the same geographical area to experience convectional and cyclonic frontal precipitation at the same time? If so, where might these events coincide? wind system (d) Figure 6.13 wind system massive latent-heat release; added instability adiabatic heating of descending air falling relative humidity with rising air temperature onshore airflow rain heavy rain, snow windward slope heavy snow evaporation light rain; some sporadic snow rain rain-shadow slope Figure 6.15
5 35 Core Concept 4: Air masses, Fronts, and Cyclogenesis PHYSICAL SYSTEMS Much of the effort of weather forecasting in the midlatitudes is devoted to analyzing and tracking air masses of different origins. Figure H 1014 mb 1005 L mb H / Observation Figure 6.23 can be used to demonstrate the relationship between air mass characteristics, their source regions, and seasonal weather. Ask the class: What are the moisture and temperature characteristics of the mp, cp, mt, and ct air masses that influence North America? What types of weather is produced when the fronts associated with a contiguous pair of these air masses meet for example, the cp and mt air masses? How does this weather vary seasonally? mb 1020 GEOGRAPHY cold front front isobar, mb wind direction mb 1017 Several key weather variables (temperature, humidity, pressure, and wind) have distinct characteristics based on the relative geographical position fronts. Figure 6.25 cold air Canada USA front For specific locations, Figures 6.25 and 6.26 can be used to temporally characterize several weather variables of a cold front; that is, before the front passes, during its clash with the air, and after the front passes. Assume it is summer. cold front air Gulf of Mexico Atlantic Ocean A suggested tabular format for this presentation is shown below: Pacific Ocean Mexico Cold front Before During After Figure 6.26 Temperature Warm Falling etc Humidity Wind Direction Pressure Cloud Type The outcomes can be derived from the position of the front and
6 36 the associated circulation patterns shown in Figures 6.25 and For example, how would these variables change as the cold front made its way through Dallas, Texas? As shown in the table it would be before the front passed, and temperatures would fall while the cold front existed. After completing the table, ask: How would these variables change for a front at the same location during spring? Core Concept 5: Severe Weather: Processes and Distribution Hurricanes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, and blizzards constitute the four categories of severe weather. Figure 6.39 PHYSICAL SYSTEMS Severe weather types have impacts that extend to other great systems, especially the hydrologic. Teaching Strategies for Observation/Critical Thinking Figures 6.39, 6.40 and 6.41 show the damage incurred from each type of severe weather event. Water is a common denominator causing the damage from these systems. Ask the class: What are the impacts to the hydrologic system from each of the four types of severe weather events? Are there any impacts to soil, or vegetation? Figure 6.40 GEOGRAPHY As human hazards, there are similarities and differences in the expression of the four severe weather types. Another way to compare and contrast severe weather events is by their time of onset, spatial extent, and duration. For example, hurricanes have a relatively long time of onset: several days elapse between their development and landfall; they cover a very wide spatial extent, and at their peak intensity can last for several hours at a given location. By contrast, tornadoes have a rapid onset, frequently affect a small area, and usually last for minutes. Ask the class for suggestions to improve the human response to each event. Figure 6.41 For example, early warning sirens can help improve the response to tornadoes and thunderstorms, since both often have a rapid onset. Since wind damage can occur from all storm types, what
7 37 about the issuance of helmets or education about their benefits (a large number of households already have bike helmets of some type, but don t think to wear them during severe weather events). Head injuries comprise 90 percent of the injuries resulting from tornadoes. What is the value of flood shelters?
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