CHAPTER 6 - PLAN AREA

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 6 - PLAN AREA The FDEP is seeking Federal incidental take coverage for activities it permits through its CCCL program, as well activities it authorizes under Chapter , F.S. This chapter describes the Plan Area, the area within which incidental take coverage is being requested, and characterizes its physical, natural, and human dimensions. It is divided into the following four sections: (1) Geographic Boundaries. (2) Plan Area Climate & Natural Resources. (3) The Human Dimension. (4) Plan Area Physical Characterization. Geographic Boundaries A requirement for development of an HCP is that the geographic boundaries within which take authorization is being requested are clearly identified. The CCCL program regulates activities on the sandy beaches and dunes between the CCCL and the MHWL. Activities below the MHWL are typically regulated through the FDEP JCP program. Based on this regulatory structure, the landward and seaward boundaries of the Plan Area are the CCCL and the MHWL, respectively. In Monroe County, a non- CCCL county where activities are permitted, the Plan Area extends from the shoreline 15 m (50 ft) landward along those portions of the coast that have been designated by the FDEP as critically eroded. It should be emphasized that Plan Area boundaries are dynamic terms rather than static, as the position of the shoreline is likely to change over the 25-year term of the ITP. This will preclude the need for changes to a defined geographical boundary each time the FDEP re-evaluates the CCCL position to account for natural (e.g., hurricanes) and anthropogenic (e.g., beach nourishment) factors, including sea level rise. Plan Regions Because of the large geographic scope of the Plan Area and the diversity of Florida s coastal landscapes, the Plan Area has been divided into four FBHCP Regions: Northeast, Southeast, Gulf, and Panhandle (Table 6-1). These regions are based on biogeographic criteria (e.g., sea turtle nesting densities, geographic similarities, and other species-specific criteria).when plan differentiation among smaller units is needed, decisions would be made according to county boundaries using the FDEP R-monument stem. The range or r-monuments is a statewide network of survey developed by FDEP for all of the state's sandy beach shoreline Using county boundaries along with the FDEP R-monument system makes sense for the FBHCP, since FDEP uses these boundaries in their CCCL data collection and permi Page 1 of 74

2 \Table 6-1. FBHCP Regions with Counties. Panhandle Gulf Southeast Northeast ESCAMBIA PINELLAS BREVARD NASSAU SANTA ROSA MANATEE INDIAN RIVER DUVAL OKALOOSA SARASOTA ST. LUCIE ST. JOHNS WALTON CHARLOTTE MARTIN FLAGLER BAY LEE PALM BEACH VOLUSIA GULF COLLIER BROWARD FRANKLIN MIAMI-DADE Geographical Extent of Plan Area The tables and figures below describe the Plan area on a county and regional basis. Figure 6-1 identifies which coastal counties within Florida have established CCCLs and outlines the boundaries of the four plan regions. Table 6-2 tabulates the acreage and linear feet of shoreline within the Plan Area. Page 2 of 74

3 Figure 6-1. Coastal Construction Control Lines for Florida Page 3 of 74

4 Table 6-2. Miles of Shoreline and Acres within FBHCP Plan Area per County and Region. Region Northeast County Linear Miles Within County Linear Miles Within Plan Area Acres Within Plan Area NASSAU DUVAL ST. JOHNS ,684 FLAGLER VOLUSIA ,563 Total Northeast Region ,388 BREVARD ,801 INDIAN RIVER ST. LUCIE MARTIN PALM BEACH ,455 BROWARD MIAMI DADE ,134 Total Southeast Region ,519 MONROE COLLIER ,080 LEE ,238 CHARLOTTE SARASOTA ,851 MANATEE PINELLAS ,362 Total Gulf Region ,036 FRANKLIN ,556 GULF ,913 BAY ,181 WALTON OKALOOSA SANTA ROSA ESCAMBIA ,555 Total Panhandle Region ,157 Total Plan Area ,100 Southeast Gulf Panhandle Figures 6-2(a-d) below identify incorporated municipalities within or adjacent to the Plan Area for each HCP Region. Page 4 of 74

5 Figure 6-2a. Municipalities adjacent to the CCCL within the Panhandle Region Page 5 of 74

6 Figure 6-2b. Municipalities adjacent to the CCCL within the Gulf Region Page 6 of 74

7 Figure 6-2c. Municipalities adjacent to the CCCL within the Southeast Region Page 7 of 74

8 Figure 6-2d. Municipalities adjacent to the CCCL within the Northeast Region Page 8 of 74

9 Plan Area Climate and Natural Resources Much of the general information on Florida s climate presented in this chapter was obtained from the Florida State University (FSU) website (accessed 6/5/13): FSU researchers compiled and summarized data gleaned from the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). The NCDC maintains records for individual weather stations around the country, and there are typically multiple stations within each county. Historical data presented for each county in the tables that follow was obtained from the FloridaSmart and FloridaNetLink websites (accessed 6/5/13): As for the general information, no metadata were provided to indicate the inclusive years from which the data were compiled or the location and/or number of stations analyzed within each county. Climate Florida's mild, sunny climate is one of its most important natural resources, making the state a major tourist destination and an attractive retirement home for millions. North and central Florida lie within the extreme southern portion of the Northern Hemisphere s humid subtropical climate zone, noted for its long, hot, and humid summers and mild and wet winters. The southernmost portion of the state has a tropical climate. A defined rainy season exists from June through September, during which tropical cyclones are prevalent. The chief factors governing Florida s climate are latitude, land configuration (a peninsula), prevailing winds, storms, pressure systems, and ocean currents in adjacent water bodies (Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico). Temperature The long-term ( ) mean temperature for the state is 23.0 o C (73.4 o F) with an inter-annual variability of 1.16 o F, due primarily to year-to-year differences in the severity of the winter season (N. Smith, Indian River State College, personal communication 2013). Mean temperatures during Florida s coldest month (January) range from the lower 50s in the north to the upper 60s in the south. The record low for Florida was set in February 1899 when Tallahassee recorded a temperature of 17.7ºC (-2 F). Page 9 of 74

10 During the warmest months (July and August), average maximum temperatures are relatively uniform throughout the state, ranging from 27.2ºC to 28.3ºC (81.0º F to 83.0 F). The record high temperature, 42.8ºC (109.0 F), was registered at Monticello (Jefferson County) in June During the winter, daily maximum temperatures throughout Florida are mild compared to those of northern states. In north Florida, the average daily high temperature during January is about 18.3ºC (65.0 F), while south of Lake Okeechobee, it is approximately 24.4ºC (75.9 F). The Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and to a lesser extent Lake Okeechobee, are the principal forces moderating the state s temperatures during all seasons, but particularly in the winter. To illustrate these effects, a summer example can be used. Temperatures above 37.8ºC (100.0ºF) are rare in Florida because of the modifying effects of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean (Winsberg 2003). In one analysis, Winsberg found that along the Atlantic and Panhandle coasts, there were 100 or fewer days during which average maximum temperatures reached at least 31.1ºC (88.0ºF), while further inland that number increased to 150 days or more. Maximum temperatures in the winter on the peninsula, particularly the southern half, tend to be slightly warmer on the Atlantic coast than on the Gulf coast because of prevailing easterly winds. Those winds passing over the relatively warm Gulf Stream in the Atlantic moderate temperatures along the east coast. As the winds continue westward over the peninsula, heat is lost and air temperatures cool. Occasional reversals of wind direction alter this pattern. During the winter, North Florida is occasionally invaded by massive cold fronts that originate far to the north and are capable of bringing intense cold to the state. However, as these air masses move south they tend to be moderated significantly by the relatively warm waters of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Nonetheless, temperatures approaching -6.7ºC (20.0ºF) have been recorded in the Everglades south of Lake Okeechobee. Historical data indicate that average January temperatures vary considerably among regions within the Plan Area (Table 6-3). The coolest region is the Panhandle with average January temperatures in the seven counties comprising the region ranging from 10.8ºC to 12.1ºC (51.4 o F to 53.8 o F). The Northeast Region is the second coolest with average temperatures ranging from 12.9ºC to 15.2ºC (55.2 o F to 59.3 o F). Counties in the Southeast region have the warmest average January temperatures, ranging from 17.4ºC to 20.3ºC (63.4 o F to 68.6 o F). The lowest average temperature during January (10.8ºC; 51.4 o F) occurred in Okaloosa County (Panhandle Region), while the highest (21.1ºC; 69.9 o F) was documented in Monroe County (Gulf Region). Page 10 of 74

11 Region Northeast Table 6-3. Historical mean winter (January) and summer (August) air temperatures and annual rainfall for counties within the Plan Area. (Sources did not provide inclusive years of data analyzed.) County January Mean Temperature ( o F) August Mean Temperature ( o F) Mean Annual Rainfall (inches) NASSAU DUVAL ST JOHNS FLAGLER VOLUSIA Total Northeast Region BREVARD INDIAN RIVER ST LUCIE MARTIN PALM BEACH BROWARD MIAMI-DADE Total Southeast Region MONROE COLLIER LEE CHARLOTTE SARASOTA MANATEE PINELLAS Total Gulf Region FRANKLIN GULF BAY WALTON OKALOOSA SANTA ROSA ESCAMBIA Total Panhandle Region Southeast Gulf Panhandle Sources: (Accessed 6/5/13) (Accessed 6/5/13) Page 11 of 74

12 Average maximum temperatures in Florida begin to rise in April, first in the interior portion of the peninsula and then spread outward toward the coasts as spring progresses. Average maximum temperatures rise above 31.1ºC (88.0 F) on the west coast during May and along most of the east coast in June. Average temperatures in August are fairly consistent among regions within the Plan Area, ranging from 26.7ºC (80.1 o F) in Sarasota County to 28.7ºC (83.6 o F) in Monroe County (Table 6-3). Sea breezes, which are prevalent during the summer, help moderate temperatures along the coast. At times, easterly trade winds may advance sea breezes more than 25 miles into the interior of the peninsula. This cooling effect appears to be largely restricted to the Atlantic Coast, the western part of the Panhandle, and perhaps the Big Bend area (N. Smith, Indian River State College, personal communication 2013). An examination of Florida s long-term trends in mean average temperature and precipitation provides no indication of global warming (Winsberg 2003). Similarly, data from the Florida Climate Center do not indicate statistically significant long-term trends for either annual average temperature or precipitation during the period from (N. Smith, Indian River State College, personal communication 2013). Thus, Florida s relatively stable average temperatures represent part of the scatter about the global average, which is trending upwards, but are not contributing to the rate of global warming. Precipitation Florida is second only to Louisiana among all states in the nation in the amount of rainfall it receives each year. On average, approximately cm (54 in) of precipitation are recorded annually, although there is considerable variability. Annual averages generally vary between cm (40-45 in) during dry years and cm (65-70 in) during wet years, with as much as 185 cm (73 in) falling during very wet years (N. Smith, Indian River State College, personal communication 2013). Almost all precipitation in the state is in the form of rain, although snow falls periodically, and on exceedingly rare occasions has accumulated to a depth of several inches in North Florida. Although there is a general perception that Florida has more rainy days than other states, this is not true. Rather, it is the intensity of precipitation that differentiates Florida from other states. A surprisingly large share of Florida s precipitation falls during periods of torrential rain, which is defined as 7.6 cm (3.0 in) or more within a 24-hour period. These events typically occur in the form of tropical storms, which are prevalent during the summer. Most of these storms originate in the Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico, and consequently the coasts receive a far larger share of their annual precipitation from these storm events than does the interior. For example, along the Panhandle coast, torrential rains account for about 17 percent of total annual rainfall, whereas in the center of the state that percentage falls to around 5-8 percent. The greatest amount of rainfall in Florida to be recorded during a 24-hour period occurred on September 5, 1950 when a hurricane drenched the village of Yankeetown on the Big Bend coast with 98.3 cm (38.7 in) of rainfall. Page 12 of 74

13 The Panhandle and southeastern Florida are the wettest parts of the state. The driest portions are the Florida Keys and the barrier island beaches at Cape Canaveral. The Panhandle has two wet seasons, one during the winter when cold fronts laden with rain pass through the area, the other in the summer when convective rainfall occurs. Frontal precipitation plays an increasingly smaller role in its contribution to total annual precipitation the farther south one goes down the peninsula. For example, the Panhandle receives only half of its precipitation during the summer (May through August), whereas in Central Florida that share increases to between percent, and in the extreme southwestern peninsula, convective rainfall accounts for 70 percent of total annual precipitation. The fall dry season begins in north Florida in September and spreads south, arriving in extreme South Florida in mid-november. Frontal rain normally begins to fall in north Florida in early November, and seldom occurs after mid-april. South of Orlando, frontal rain in the quantities experienced in north Florida is rare. Florida s summer rainy season normally begins in southeastern Florida in late April and then moves northward. Summer rain is generally in the form of thunderstorms that often form in long squall lines created when hot humid air from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico rises, and as the moisture condenses, large cumulonimbus clouds are formed. These clouds typically begin forming during the morning, bringing brief but often heavy periods of rainfall during the afternoon. Thunderstorms are often accompanied by severe lighting. Florida experiences more lightning strikes than any other state in the country. Lightning is the state's leading cause of weather-related deaths, and Florida has the distinction of having the nation's worst record of deaths by lightning. According to the Oklahoma Climatological Survey, the nation s highest frequency of thunderstorms can be found in a narrow band running along the west side of the Florida peninsula ( accessed 6/5/13). Within the Plan Area, the Panhandle Region receives the greatest average annual rainfall ranging from cm (57.9 in) in Bay County to cm (65.7 in) in Walton County, which is the wettest county overall (Table 6-3). The Southeast Region is the second wettest with average annual rainfall ranging from cm (49.8 in) in St. Lucie and Martin Counties to cm (65.2 in) in Broward County. Within the Northeast Region, St. Johns and Nassau Counties receive the smallest amounts of rain each year, with averages of cm (48.3 in) and cm (48.5 in), respectively. The Gulf Region is the driest region within the Plan Area, with Monroe County having the least amount of rainfall overall (96.5 cm; 38.0 in). The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a physical phenomenon that occurs in the equatorial Pacific Ocean whereby water temperatures oscillate between being unusually warm (El Niño) and unusually cold (La Niña). El Niño and La Niña are among the strongest drivers of the climate of North America, with impacts that vary across different regions. The southeastern United States experiences particularly strong long-term weather shifts, with Florida feeling the greatest impacts. In winters when Page 13 of 74

14 an El Niño climate cycle exists, rainfall increases while temperatures are cooler statewide, although there tend to be fewer freezes. El Niño also lessens the severity of tropical storms by creating stronger than normal upper level wind shear which is unfavorable for tropical storm development. Hurricanes and Tropical Storms Tropical storms and hurricanes affecting the United States can originate in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, or the Atlantic Ocean. When sustained wind velocity within a tropical system rises above 73 miles per hour, it is reclassified from a tropical storm to a hurricane. As a result of its peninsular coastline, Florida has been impacted by more storms than any other state in the country. Since 1851, only 18 hurricane seasons have passed without a recorded storm making landfall anywhere within the state. In addition to producing extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, tropical storms are also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge, and can also spawn tornadoes. Hurricanes gain their strength from warm water and are classified by intensity using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale: Category 1 being the weakest and Category 5 the strongest. The official hurricane season runs from June through November each year. At the beginning and end of the season, hurricanes impacting the state have been relatively weak, and often form in the Gulf and Caribbean. Stronger storms, which are most prevalent during the peak of hurricane season (August through October) typically form in the Atlantic. Since 1851, 81 hurricanes have made initial landfall within the Plan Area (Table 6-4). In most cases the storms enter on one coast and then diminish in intensity as they travel across the peninsula and exit on the opposite coast. On occasion, storms may make a second landfall within the state. Additionally, storms passing close to the coastline but not making landfall or making landfall in adjacent states may severely impact counties within the Plan Area. The Gulf Region of the Plan Area has experienced the most total hurricane landfalls (28) since 1851, with the majority occurring in Monroe County (15; Table 6-4). The Southeast and Panhandle Regions have experienced 27 and 25 hurricane landfalls, respectively. Within the Panhandle, the largest number of direct hits occurred in Bay and Okaloosa Counties (each with 7). In the Southeast Region, one-third of all hurricane landfalls occurred in Miami-Dade County. Only one hurricane has made initial landfall in the Northeast Region. However, numerous storms have impacted this region when passing offshore or exiting the state from the west coast. Page 14 of 74

15 Table 6-4. Hurricanes making landfall within the Plan Area since Region County 1 Storm Northeast Southeast Saffir- Simpson Category Date of Landfall Year Landfall Location NASSAU DUVAL ST JOHNS Dora 3 9/ Near St. Augustine FLAGLER VOLUSIA Unnamed 2 8/ Near Satellite Beach BREVARD Unnamed 1 7/ Cocoa Beach Unnamed 1 8/ Cape Canaveral INDIAN RIVER ST LUCIE MARTIN PALM BEACH BROWARD Erin 1 8/ Near Indian River Shores Unnamed 2 8/ South of Indian River Shores Unnamed 2 8/ Hutchinson Island Unnamed 1 8/ Hutchinson Island Unnamed 1 7/ Fort Pierce Unnamed 3 8/ North of Jupiter Hobe Sound "Okeechobee" 4 9/ National Wildlife Refuge Hobe Sound David 2 9/ National Wildlife Refuge Frances 2 9/ Hutchinson Island Jeanne 3 9/ Hutchinson Island Unnamed 4 9/ Boca Raton Unnamed 4 8/ Riviera Beach Unnamed 4 9/ North Palm Beach Katrina 1 8/ Hallandale Beach Cleo 2 8/ Dania Beach Unnamed 1 9/ Fort Lauderdale Page 15 of 74

16 Table 6-4. Hurricanes making landfall within the Plan Area since Region County 1 Storm Saffir- Simpson Category Date of Landfall Year Landfall Location Unnamed 1 11/ Surfside Southeast Gulf MIAMI- DADE MONROE COLLIER Unnamed 3 8/ North of Miami Beach King 2 10/ Key Biscayne "Great Miami" 4 9/ Miami Andrew 4 8/ Biscayne National Park/Homestead Unnamed 4 9/ Unnamed 3 10/ Biscayne National Park/Homestead Biscayne National Park/Homestead Unnamed 1 8/ Biscayne National Park/Homestead Unnamed 1 10/ Key Largo Betsy 3 9/ Key Largo Unnamed 2 9/ Key Largo Unnamed 1 10/ Key Largo Inez 1 10/ Plantation Key Unnamed 5 9/ Lower Matecumbe Key Unnamed 3 11/ Long Key Donna 4 9/ Long Key Unnamed 3 10/ Marathon Unnamed 3 10/ Marathon Unnamed 1 6/ Marathon Unnamed 3 9/ Saddlebunch Keys Unnamed 2 10/ Saddlehill Key Irene 1 10/ Key West Floyd 1 10/ Key West Unnamed 2 10/ Chokoloskee Unnamed 1 10/ Everglades City Wilma 3 10/ South of Cape Romano Unnamed 1 10/ Keewaydin Island Page 16 of 74

17 Table 6-4. Hurricanes making landfall within the Plan Area since Region County 1 Storm Gulf Panhandle LEE Saffir- Simpson Category Date of Landfall Year Landfall Location Unnamed 2 9/ Fort Myers Beach Unnamed 3 10/ Sanibel Island/Fort Myers Unnamed 3 10/ Captiva/Sanibel Islands Charley 4 8/ Captival Island CHARLOTTE Unnamed 1 12/ North of Rotonda Unnamed 1 10/ South of Englewood SARASOTA None MANATEE Unnamed 1 10/ Anna Maria Island PINELLAS Unnamed 3 10/ Clearwater Unnamed 1 9/ Clearwater Unnamed 2 10/ Bald Point State Park Bald Point State Alma 2 6/ FRANKLIN Park Unnamed 2 8/ Eastpoint Unnamed 2 6/ Southwest of Apalachicola GULF BAY Unnamed 1 9/ East of Eglin AFB Annex Kate 2 11/ South of Mexico Beach Agnes 1 6/ West of Mexico Beach Unnamed 3 10/ West of Mexico Beach Unnamed 1 9/ West of Mexico Beach "Great Middle Florida" 3 8/ Panama City Unnamed 3 10/ Panama City Earl 1 9/ Panama City Unnamed 2 8/ Northwest of Panama City Page 17 of 74

18 Table 6-4. Hurricanes making landfall within the Plan Area since Region County 1 Storm Panhandle WALTON OKALOOSA SANTA ROSA Saffir- Simpson Category Date of Landfall Year Florence 1 9/ Landfall Location Grayton Beach State Park Eloise 3 9/ East of Destin Unnamed 2 7/ Destin Flossy 1 9/ Destin Unnamed 1 7/ Fort Walton Beach Unnamed 1 9/ Fort Walton Beach Unnamed 1 7/ Fort Walton Beach Unnamed 3 9/ Fort Walton Beach Unnamed 3 9/ Fort Walton Beach Opal 3 10/ Dennis 3 7/ Gulf Islands National Seashore Gulf Islands National Seashore ESCAMBIA Unnamed 2 10/ West of Pensacola 1 Based on location where eye of storm initially entered Florida. Sources: (Accessed 6/5/13) Major hurricanes are those classified as Category 3 or higher. There have been 12 major hurricanes that have made initial landfall in the Gulf Region. Of those, seven occurred in the Florida Keys (Monroe County). Eleven (11) major hurricanes have made landfall in the Southeast Region (5 in Miami-Dade County), while 8 have hit the Panhandle. Only one major hurricane has made initial landfall in the Northeast Region (St. Johns County). The most active hurricane periods for counties within the Plan Area were from and again from with nine hurricanes making landfall in the state during both periods. During the 1920s, three of the nine were major hurricanes, including the Okeechobee and Great Miami hurricanes. During the 1940s, six of the nine hurricanes to make landfall in the state were rated as a Category 3 or higher. By comparison, only two hurricanes entered Florida during the 1980s, and both were relatively minor. Page 18 of 74

19 Region Northeast County Table 6-5. Tropical storms making landfall within the Plan Area for each decade since NASSAU DUVAL 1 1 ST JOHNS 1 1 FLAGLER 1 1 VOLUSIA Total Northeast Region BREVARD 1 1 INDIAN RIVER 0 ST LUCIE 0 Southeast MARTIN 1 1 PALM BEACH BROWARD 2 2 MIAMI- DADE 1 1 Total Southeast Region Total Page 19 of 74

20 Table 6-5. Tropical storms making landfall within the Plan Area for each decade since Region County Total Gulf MONROE COLLIER LEE CHARLOTTE 1 1 SARASOTA MANATEE 1 1 PINELLAS Total Gulf Region Panhandle FRANKLIN GULF BAY WALTON OKALOOSA SANTA ROSA 1 1 ESCAMBIA Total Panhandle Region Total Plan Area Source: (Accessed 6/5/13) Page 20 of 74

21 There have been approximately 89 tropical storm landfalls in Florida since 1851 (Table 6-5). Over three-quarters of the storms entered the state in the Gulf and Panhandle Regions (42 and 28 landfalls, respectively). Another 11 and 8 landfalls occurred in the Southeast and Northeast Regions, respectively. Monroe County (Gulf region) experienced the most landfalls (14). The most active tropical storm periods were from and when 12 and 11 storms, respectively, struck the state. Wind Average wind speeds for select cities within the Plan Area are given in Table 6-6. Wind speeds are highest in Key West and range from 9.2 mph in August to 12.2 mph in April with an annual average of 10.9 mph. In West Palm Beach and Miami, annual wind speeds average 9.6 and 9.2 mph, respectively. Apalachicola and Jacksonville have the lowest average annual wind speeds at 7.8 mph. Wind speeds are generally highest in March and April and lowest in July and August. Tornadoes Florida experiences more tornadoes per 10,000 square miles than any state in the nation. However, most of these tornadoes are much lower in intensity than those on the Great Plains or Midwest, and there are fewer deaths and property damage than experienced in other states. Many of the tornadoes form over water and are referred to as waterspouts. These generally tend to be relatively small and weak, although there have been some notable exceptions. The highest incidence of tornado deaths and injuries in Florida has occurred in a swath between Tampa and Daytona Beach. Fog In north and central Florida, dense winter fog can cause transportation problems especially late at night or early in the morning. In the winter, relatively warm and moist air may drift in from the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean and settle over cooler land. The air near the land surface may be chilled to the dew point, causing fog to develop. Usually, the fog dissipates by mid-morning. Over the southern half of Florida, fog is rare throughout the year. Page 21 of 74

22 Table 6-6. Average wind speed (mph) for select cities within the Plan Area based on data compiled through Region County City Years Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Mean Northeast DUVAL Jacksonville VOLUSIA Daytona Beach INDIAN RIVER Vero Beach Southeast PALM BEACH West Palm Beach MIAMI-DADE Miami Gulf Panhandle MONROE Key West LEE Fort Myers FRANKLIN Apalachicola ESCAMBIA Pensacola Source: The Southeast Regional Climate Center (Accessed 6/5/13) Page 22 of 74

23 Climate Change and Sea Level Rise The varying and dynamic elements of climate science are inherently long term, complex and interrelated. Regardless of the underlying causes of climate change, glacial melting and expansion of warming oceans are causing sea level rise, although its extent or rate cannot as yet be predicted with certainty. At present, climate models cannot be scaled down enough to precisely predict when and where climate impacts will occur. Thus, although we may know the direction of change, it may not be possible to predict its precise timing or magnitude. Furthermore, these impacts may take place gradually, or may occur episodically in major leaps. Our understanding of how climate change and sea level rise are likely to impact the Plan Area over the relatively near-term (e.g., 25-year term of the ITP) is still evolving. However, computer models are continually being improved to facilitate those predictions, particularly here in Florida. The discussion below focuses on how climate change generally is expected to affect coastal Florida. A more in-depth analysis is presented in Chapter 8 (Assessment of Anticipated Take). It utilizes the most current predictions of sea level rise to bracket the range of potential effects on those factors most likely to affect the incidental take of covered species over the term of the ITP (e.g., changes in coastal populations, land use, frequency and scope of CCCL permitting activities, and impacts to natural communities). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report (IPCC 2007a), warming of the earth s climate is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in average global air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising sea level. Florida is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and sea level rise with over 1,200 miles of coastline, almost 4,500 square miles of estuaries and bays, and more than 6,700 square miles of other coastal waters (FDEP 2008a). Additionally, most of the state s 18 million residents live within 60 miles of the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico (FDEP 1994, 2008). According to the Florida Oceans and Coastal Council (FOCC 2010), three-fourths of the state s population lives in coastal counties, which account for 79 percent of Florida s total annual economy. Florida s coastal and marine resources include diverse and productive ecosystems such as coastal ocean, barrier islands, estuaries, mangrove swamps, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and oyster bars (FOCC 2009). These ecosystems are an important food source, perform invaluable ecological functions at no cost to the public, and provide significant recreational opportunities for residents and tourists alike. While future impacts cannot be precisely predicted, climate change can potentially pose significant threats to the state s infrastructure, human health, natural systems, economy, and long-term sustainability (FOCC 2009). Page 23 of 74

24 Potential General Impacts According to IPCC models, the world s mean temperature will rise an additional 1.8 to 4.0 o C (3.2 to 7.2ºF), sea levels will rise 0.18 to 0.59 m (7 to 23 in), and weather variability will significantly increase by the year 2100 (IPCC 2007b). A warmer and more variable climate threatens to lead to higher levels of some air pollutants, increase transmission of infectious diseases through unclean water and food contamination, compromise agricultural production, and increase the hazards of extreme weather events and heat waves (World Health Organization 2009). Extreme high air temperatures can lead directly to deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory disease, as well as raise levels of key air pollutants such as ground-level ozone (World Health Organization 2009). More variable precipitation can lead to increased frequency and intensity of both floods and droughts. Altered rainfall patterns, increased rates of evaporation of surface waters and melting of glaciers, combined with population and economic growth, are expected to increase the number of people living in water-stressed water basins worldwide from about 1.5 billion in 1990 to 3-6 billion by 2050 (Arnell 2004). Rising temperatures and more variable precipitation are projected to reduce crop yields in many developing countries, stressing food supplies and leading to increased prevalence of malnutrition. In the long run, the greatest health impacts may result from the gradual increase of pressure on the natural, economic, and social systems that sustain health, including reductions and seasonal changes in the availability of fresh water, regional drops in food production, and rising sea levels (World Health Organization 2009). Each of these changes has the potential to force population displacement, which is associated with heightened risks of a range of health effects, from mental disorders to communicable diseases, and increase the risks of civil conflict. The potential impacts of climate change on Florida s natural resources are varied. Oceans are becoming more acidic as a result of increased carbon dioxide levels (Archer 2005). Acidification can negatively impact marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals and bivalves (IPCC 2007b, Bates 2007). Increased ocean acidity reduces shell integrity and growth in bivalves and slows reef-building by corals, which could lead to changes in community structure and eventual extinction as well as disrupt the food web and impact fishing and tourism (Fabry et al. 2008, Kurihara 2008). Rising sea-surface temperatures could result in more frequent and severe coral bleaching events as well as increases in coral disease in the Florida Keys (Wilkinson and Souter 2008). Changing environmental conditions may ultimately result in major shifts in coral reef community structure and a loss of biodiversity (FOCC 2009). Increased sea-surface temperatures have also been implicated in massive die-offs of sponges along the reef tract from Miami to the Dry Tortugas and in Florida Bay, seagrasses in Florida Bay, and tropical reef fish in the Florida Keys (Wilkinson and Souter 2008). As ocean temperatures continue to increase, impacts may begin to affect more northerly coastal and marine environments (FOCC 2009). Changes in the distribution of native and exotic species will occur as the ranges of marine species shift northward in response to warmer ocean temperatures (Straile and Stenseth 2007). These conditions will likely be more favorable for non-native plant and animal species to invade Page 24 of 74

25 Florida s coastal waters (Stachowicz et al. 2002). The occurrence of harmful algal blooms will likely become more frequent and intense with warmer water temperatures, which may lead to the disruption of coastal marine and estuarine food webs and adverse impacts to people near the affected areas (Paerl and Huisman 2008, Peperzak 2005, Van Dolah 2000). Changes in sea-surface temperatures, water vapor content, and wind shear may alter tropical storm and hurricane frequency and intensity (Knutson et al. 2008, Vecchi and Soden 2007). There is a possibility that major hurricanes (Category 3 or higher) may become more frequent with increasing sea-surface temperatures (Webster et al. 2005). In addition, storm surge events could occur much more often because of the higher base elevation of the ocean caused by sea level rise (Harrington and Walton 2008). Florida s geology, chemistry, biology, and human population will be profoundly affected by rising sea levels (FOCC 2010). For coastal resources, the rate at which sea level rises is just as important as how much it rises. For the past few thousand years, sea level around the state has been rising at a slow but constant rate (Maul and Martin 1993), although a persistent upturn in the rate of relative sea-level rise may have begun in recent decades (IPCC 2007b). The biggest unknown in projections of sea level over the next century is the response of ice reservoirs to climate change (FOCC 2010). Beaches and inlets are regional systems of sediment deposition, erosion, and transport which are processes greatly affected by changes in sea level, rates of sea-level change, and frequency and intensity of storm events (FOCC 2010). Florida s shoreline is both advancing because of sediment accumulation and retreating as a result of erosion and overwash (Sallenger et al. 2006). It is expected that sea-level rise and hurricane landfalls will exacerbate long-term erosion rates and that barrier islands will continue to erode, migrate landward, and be reduced in elevation (Sallenger et al. 2009). The submergence of low barrier islands will leave current mainland shorelines along some areas of the state vulnerable to the full brunt of storms. Even though Florida tide ranges are relatively small, tidal effects extend far inland, because much of the state is relatively low and flat (FOCC 2010). Because sea level has been rising slowly for a long time, many tidal wetlands such as mangrove forests and salt marshes have been able keep pace with sea-level changes through natural sedimentation and marsh accretion and have grown into expansive habitats for estuarine and marine life (Estevez 1988, Hine and Belknap 1986, Glick and Clough 2006). However, these wetlands may disappear if sea-level rise exceeds their capacity to adapt. Critical wetlands of the Big Bend and the Everglades are retreating or disappearing and being replaced by salt-marsh vegetation or open water (Williams et al. 1999, Raabe et al. 2004, DeSantis et al. 2007). It is likely that lowdiversity brackish wetlands will replace high-diversity freshwater wetlands in the tidal freshwater reaches of coastal rivers (Van Arman et al. 2005), and as a result, major spatial shifts in wetland communities are likely (Dahdouh-Guebas et al. 2005). The loss of tidal wetlands will result in the dangerous loss of coastal systems that buffer storm impacts (Wanless et al. 1997, Badola and Hussain Page 25 of 74

26 2005). It is possible that more than half of the salt marsh, shoals, and mudflats that serve as critical bird and fish habitat in Florida could be lost during the 21 st century with continued sea level rise (Glick and Clough 2006). Rising sea level can potentially cause extensive damage to coastal communities in Florida, especially as it heightens storm surge generated by tropical storms and hurricanes. Fifteen of the state s 20 major population centers are located in coastal counties (FOCC 2010). Much of the coastal infrastructure was designed and built according to criteria based on historical local mean sea level and flooding data which did not take into account current or future sea level (Florida Climate Action Team 2008). Sea-level rise will physically stress infrastructure such as buildings, roads, and bridges, and this stress will increase infrastructure fatigue, resulting in reduced effective functional life and increased maintenance (South East Climate Change Partnership 2005, U.S. EPA 2009). Much of the state s current coastal infrastructure will likely need to be replaced or improved during on-going sea-level rise. The mean annual number of people at risk from flooding by coastal storm surges is projected to increase several-fold (to 200 million) in a scenario of mid-range climate changes, in which a 40-cm (16-in) sea level rise occurs by the 2080s (IPCC 2007c). Grinsted et al. (2009) projects that sea level could rise by one meter by 2100 which is three times higher than that predicted by the IPCC. While a one-meter (3-ft) rise would inundate Florida s barrier islands and much of its southern tip, a three-meter (10-ft) rise would submerge much of South Florida, including Miami and Fort Lauderdale (Robbins 2009). In either scenario, rising waters would lead to the rapid displacement of people living along Florida s coastline. Rising waters will likely force millions of people to move inland while inundating millions of hectares of wetlands, islands, and coastal marshes. A one-meter (3-ft) sea level rise would displace almost half of Florida s population, forcing nearly 8 million people to higher ground. It would also swamp roughly 20 percent of the state s conservation lands and inundate the habitat of at least 26 animal species, placing many of them in danger of extinction. From a human development standpoint, the conventional strategy used to combat sea-level rise has been coastal hardening (building sea walls and other protective structures and nourishing or expanding beaches). Sea level rise in conjunction with human population growth, urban coastal development, and landscape fragmentation, poses a major threat to human and natural communities in Florida (Noss 2011). Pilkey and Young (2009) emphasize that sea level rise will be the most immediate, the most certain, the most widespread, and the most economically visible in its effects of all the current and projected changes from anthropogenic climate change. This conclusion suggests that sea level rise could be one of the greatest potential causes of global species extinctions and ecosystem disruption over coming decades and centuries (Noss 2011). Within the state of Florida, many imperiled species have their entire worldwide distribution in coastal areas that are projected to be inundated by rising sea levels over the next several decades (Geselbracht et al. 2011, Maschinski et al. 2011). Protection of undeveloped inland habitats would help accommodate upslope migration of coastal forest communities and associated species in response to rising seas (Geselbracht et al. 2011). Maschinski et al. (2011) suggest that Page 26 of 74

27 multiple strategies will be necessary to reduce extinction possibilities, including the controversial measure of managed relocation of vulnerable species populations. Rising sea level greatly increases the odds of damaging floods from storm surges. Even small amounts of sea level rise can make rare floods more common by adding to tides and storm surge. For over twothirds of the 55 locations analyzed by Climate Central (Strauss et al. 2012), past and future global warming more than doubles the estimated odds of "century" or worse floods occurring within the next 18 years. For over half of the locations examined, warming at least triples the odds of century-plus floods. The Climate Central study found that at over half of the 55 sites analyzed, there is a one-in-two or better chance of water reaching at least 1.2 m (4 ft) higher than the average local high tide by 2030, at least once. By 2050, many locations are expected to experience 1.5-m (5-ft) or higher floods. In every case, sea level rise increases the odds, usually doubling or tripling them at least. While sea level rise projections and associated flood risks vary by site because of differences in local effects, these increases are likely to cause a significant amount of damage. Across the country, nearly 5 million people live in 2.6 million homes on land less than 1.2 m (4 ft) above the local high tide line, potential victims of increasingly likely climate-induced coastal flooding (Strauss et al. 2012). Approximately half of the exposed population below 1.2 m (4 ft) live in the state of Florida. According to the draft Regional Climate Action Plan of the Southeast Florida Regional Climate Change Compact (2011), an estimated $31 billion in taxable property lies below the three-foot line in just three counties in southeast Florida, not including Miami-Dade County, which has the most homes at risk in both the state and the nation. According to Climate Central s analysis, the odds of a 100-year flood occurring in Florida by 2030 are multiplied by 2.6X with sea level rise from climate change ( reports/, accessed 6/5/13). Climate Central has also developed maps and statistics for areas in Florida that are less than m (1-10 ft) above the local high tide line and show threats from sea level rise and storm surge, including searchable results for every coastal town, city, and county (Climate Central website; accessed 6/5/13). According to these maps, at an elevation of less than 1.2 m (4 ft), a height near the middle of the range of 100-year flood levels calculated for Florida water level stations, 2.4 million people will be vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge. Additionally, 1.3 million homes and 1.8 million acres of land will be at risk. Counties with the largest total exposed populations include Miami-Dade, Broward, Lee, Pinellas, Collier, Monroe, Charlotte, St. Johns, and Brevard (Table 6-7). Miami-Dade and Broward Counties each have more people living on land below 1.2 m (4 ft) than any US state except Florida itself and Louisiana. Page 27 of 74

28 Table 6-7. Summary of Populations, Homes, and Land less than 1.2 m (4 ft) above Sea Level for Each County within the Plan Area. HCP Region County Population Homes Acres Nearest Flood Risk Indicator Site NASSAU 4,823 (6.6%) 2,707 (7.7%) 30,768 (5.9%) Fernandina Beach - Amelia River DUVAL 12,081 (1.4%) 6,577 (1.7%) 14,191 (2.6%) Fernandina Beach - Amelia River ST JOHNS 32,345 (17.0%) 16,381 (18.2%) 40,094 (8.6%) Fernandina Beach - Amelia River FLAGLER 7,663 (8.0%) 4,978 (10.2%) 23,795 (6.0%) Fernandina Beach - Amelia River VOLUSIA 16,466 (3.3%) 11,855 (4.7%) 73,372 (8.5%) Fernandina Beach - Amelia River BREVARD 31,545 (5.8%) 17,589 (6.5%) 76,151 (9.6%) Fernandina Beach - Amelia River INDIAN RIVER 11,896 (8.6%) 9,104 (11.9%) 6,932 (1.8%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay ST LUCIE 11,173 (4.0%) 12,415 (9.1%) 4,752 (1.0%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay MARTIN 11,429 (7.8%) 8,157 (10.4%) 6,762 (1.4%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay PALM BEACH 22,845 (1.7%) 18,376 (2.8%) 6,064 (0.4%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay BROWARD 645,155 (36.9%) 307,105 (37.9%) 118,078 (12.9%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay MIAMI-DADE 933,421 (37.4%) 397,409 (40.2%) 426,263 (34.7%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay MONROE 52,551 (72.4%) 37,902 (72.0%) 179,609 (66.8%) Vaca Key - Florida Bay COLLIER 73,230 (22.8%) 58,876 (29.8%) 112,109 (8.7%) Naples - Gulf of Mexico LEE 189,350 (30.6%) 137,538 (37.1%) 72,849 (13.1%) Naples - Gulf of Mexico CHARLOTTE 45,662 (28.5%) 33,620 (33.4%) 39,412 (8.0%) Naples - Gulf of Mexico SARASOTA 12,221 (3.2%) 11,017 (4.8%) 7,211 (1.7%) St. Petersburg, Tampa Bay MANATEE 26,687 (8.3%) 20,798 (12.0%) 11,799 (1.9%) St. Petersburg, Tampa Bay PINELLAS 151,642 (16.6%) 100,218 (19.9%) 29,931 (15.7%) Clearwater Beach - Gulf of Mexico FRANKLIN 608 (5.3%) 1,202 (13.9%) 45,323 (10.8%) Apalachicola - Apalachicola River 59,230 (12.8%) GULF 288 (1.8%) 422 (4.6%) Apalachicola - Apalachicola River BAY 5,677 (3.4%) 4,208 (4.2%) 18,665 (3.2%) Apalachicola - Apalachicola River WALTON 5,145 (9.3%) 4,172 (9.2%) 22,415 (3.0%) Pensacola - Pensacola Bay OKALOOSA 7,083 (3.9%) 6,074 (6.6%) 5,462 (0.8%) Pensacola - Pensacola Bay SANTA ROSA 2,568 (1.7%) 1,542 (2.4%) 21,313 (2.9%) Pensacola - Pensacola Bay ESCAMBIA 2,724 (0.9%) 2,499 (1.8%) 11,841 (2.2%) Pensacola - Pensacola Bay Source: Climate Central ( Northeast Southeast Panhandle Gulf The risk of flooding in low-lying coastal areas will increase with sea-level rise, especially during spring and fall high tides and storm events (Murley et al. 2008). Because Florida s stormwater drainage systems rely primarily on gravity, sea-level rise is expected to reduce their effectiveness (SFWMD 2009a). In low-lying inland areas, the risk of flooding during heavy rains will increase as stormwater drainage systems are compromised (Heimlich et al. 2009). Sea-level rise already threatens the aquifers that supply much of Florida s drinking water in low-lying coastal areas, a problem that is likely to worsen as sea level continues to rise and withdrawals of water increase in response to the state s growing population (FOCC 2010). Shallow coastal aquifers are already experiencing saltwater intrusion which threatens to contaminate water-supply wells in coastal areas. Sea-level rise will cause brackish water to encroach farther northward in the low-lying southernmost portion of the Everglades (FOCC 2010). The Pensacola Bay and St. Johns River watersheds, as well as drinking water supplies in southern Florida from Palm Beach to Miami, the Florida Keys, Naples, and Fort Myers are especially at risk to saltwater intrusion associated with rising sea levels (Dausman and Langevin 2005, Freed et al. 2005, Murley et al. 2008). The South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) already spends millions of dollars per year to prevent Miami s Biscayne Aquifer, the primary water supply to southeastern Florida and the Florida Keys, from becoming brackish (Miller et al. 1989). The main purpose of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan is to increase freshwater flow to the southern Everglades, which would help offset the effect of sea-level rise and help preserve southern Florida s water supply as well as protect the Page 28 of 74

29 Everglades ecosystem (SFWMD 2009b). As sea level continues to rise, shallow aquifers throughout the state will eventually be threatened (Murley et al. 2008). Effects on Beaches and Dependent Species Florida s beaches are not only economically and recreationally valuable, but also provide critical habitat for organisms such as sea turtles and beach mice. There are many beaches throughout the state that experience varying degrees of erosion which can be attributed to man-made inlets and to tropical storms, making it difficult to determine the influence of concurrent sea-level rise (Williams et al. 2009). In areas experiencing a net loss of sand, some beaches are maintained by restoration (initial placement of sand onto eroded beaches) and nourishment (subsequent maintenance events, often referred to as renourishment; Absalonsen and Dean 2010). With rising sea level and associated bigger wave and storm surge impacts, erosion rates are likely to increase along sea turtle nesting beaches. This could particularly impact areas with low-lying beaches where sand depth is a limiting factor, as the sea will inundate nesting sites and decrease available nesting habitat (Daniels et al. 1993, Fish et al. 2005, Baker et al. 2006). Concurrently, beachfront property owners are likely to increasingly resort to armoring their properties, further constricting nesting habitat. Over 90 percent of loggerhead sea turtle nesting and almost all green turtle and leatherback nesting in the United States occur on Florida s beaches (FOCC 2010). The loss of habitat as a result of climate change could be accelerated because of a combination of other environmental and oceanographic changes such as an increase in the frequency of storms and/or changes in prevailing currents, both of which could lead to increased beach loss via erosion (Antonelis et al. 2006, Baker et al. 2006). Significant losses of nesting beaches would likely threaten the recovery and survival of sea turtle populations. The IPCC Report (2007a) describes changes in natural ecosystems with potential wide-spread effects on many organisms, including marine mammals and migratory birds. The potential for rapid climate change poses a significant challenge for fish and wildlife conservation. For example, it will become increasingly difficult for shorebirds and seabirds to find suitable nesting and foraging habitat on Florida s beaches as sea level rises, particularly if natural shoreline changes are inhibited by armoring. Species abundances and distributions are dynamic, and are affected by a variety of factors, including climate. As climate changes, the abundance and distribution of covered species within the Plan Area may also change. Although all covered species are susceptible to these changes, beach mice are perhaps the most susceptible because of their endemic nature. Natural Communities Natural communities are comprised of unique assemblages of native plants and animals. Along Florida s coastline many of these communities have been highly fragmented by development, and as a result, are now largely confined to large tracts of publically-owned lands, such as state and Federal parks. Natural communities within the Plan Area were identified using available land cover data from Page 29 of 74

30 the South Florida (2000), Southwest Florida (2000, 2009), St. John s (2000), and Northwest Florida (2004) Water Management Districts (Florida Geographic Data Library website, accessed 09/14/11). Within the Plan Area, these data indicate there are 12 natural community types, as defined by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI): beach and dune, coastal strand, mesic flatwoods, maritime hammock, coastal grassland, hydric hammock, tidal swamp, tidal marsh, freshwater marsh, wet prairie, wet flatwoods, and bottomland forest. The habitat descriptions provided below are derived from the FNAI Guide to the Natural Communities of Florida (1990, 2010). Table 6-8 contains a listing of the natural communities that occur within the Plan Area by county and HCP region. Beach and Dune The beach-dune system is the largest intact natural community remaining within the Plan Area, although it has been considerably impacted in many areas by development and recreational beach use. The FNAI characterizes the beach/dune as a dynamic and mobile environment, consisting of a wind-deposited foredune and wave-deposited upper beach. The shifting beach sand zone is typically unvegetated, while the foredune and lands farther inland can be sparsely to densely vegetated with a variety of xeric, pioneer plant species. Typical vegetation includes sea oats (Uniola paniculata), beach panicum (Panicum amarum), beach morning glory (Ipomoea spp.), dune sunflower (Helianthus debilis), evening primrose (Oenothera humifusa), sand spur (Cenchrus spp.), sea purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum), Spanish bayonet (Yucca aloifolia), and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). Despite the harsh environment of the beach-dune system, this community provides extremely important habitat for a variety of species. The most conspicuous and characteristic resident animal species on the beach is the ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata). Though rare, beach mice inhabit the primary, secondary, and occasionally tertiary sand dunes. A variety of infaunal macroinvertebrates, including the coquina crab (Donax spp.) and mole crab (Emerita talpoida) inhabit the swash zone and intertidal sands, and these same areas provide important juvenile developmental habitat for a variety of surf fish, including pompano. Migratory song birds feed upon the sea oats along the dunes and shorebirds utilize the beach for resting, foraging and nesting. Florida s beach-dune system also provides important nesting habitat for sea turtles, with females emerging from the ocean to lay eggs from early spring through late summer and hatchlings emerging from nests throughout the summer into early fall. Page 30 of 74

31 Table 6-8. Natural community types occurring within the Florida Beaches HCP Plan Area. Natural Community Type (Florida Natural Areas Inventory Classification) Region County Beach-Dune Coastal Strand Mesic Flatwoods Maritime Hammock Coastal Grassland Hydric Hammock Tidal Swamp Tidal Marsh Fresh-water Marsh Wet Prairie Wet Flatwoods Bottom-land Forest Northeast NASSAU DUVAL ST JOHNS FLAGLER VOLUSIA Total Northeast Region Southeast BREVARD INDIAN RIVER ST LUCIE MARTIN PALM BEACH BROWARD MIAMI- DADE Total Southeast Region Page 31 of 74

32 Table 6-8. Natural community types occurring within the Florida Beaches HCP Plan Area. Natural Community Type (Florida Natural Areas Inventory Classification) Region County Beach/Dune Coastal Strand Mesic Flatwoods Maritime Hammock Coastal Grassland Hydric Hammock Tidal Swamp Tidal Marsh Fresh-water Marsh Wet Prairie Wet Flatwoods Bottom-land Forest Gulf Total Gulf Region Panhandle MONROE COLLIER LEE CHARLOTTE SARASOTA MANATEE PINELLAS ESCAMBIA SANTA ROSA OKALOOSA WALTON BAY GULG FRANKLIN Total Panhandle Region Page 32 of 74

33 Coastal Strand The FNAI defines coastal strand (a.k.a. coastal scrub) as stabilized, wind-deposited coastal dunes that are vegetated with dense thickets of xeric, evergreen shrubs. Coastal strand communities typically occur immediately landward of the beach-dune system. This community type is common throughout the Plan Area in relatively small, remnant pockets on both public and private lands. Dominant vegetation within this community includes various xeric oaks (Quercus spp.), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), rosemary (Ceratiola spp.), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), and gopher apple (Licania michauxii). As a result of the arid conditions found in the coastal strand, fauna is dominated by reptiles, such as the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), black racer (Coluber constrictor), and pygmy rattlesnake (Sistruris miliarius). Mammals common within the coastal strand include the eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus), cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), and cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus). Mesic Flatwoods Mesic flatwoods are the most widespread natural community in Florida, covering the flat sandy terraces left behind when sea level retracted during the Pleistocene Epoch. However, within the Plan Area, they are only known to occur within Gulf, Franklin, and Palm Beach Counties. Mesic flatwoods are characterized by an open canopy of tall pines and a dense, low ground layer of low shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) is the principal canopy tree in northern and Central Florida, and South Florida slash pine (P. elliottii var. densa) generally forms the canopy south of Lake Okeechobee. Characteristic shrubs include saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), gallberry (Ilex glabra), coastal plain staggerbush (Lyonia fruticosa), and fetterbush (Lyonia lucida). Rhizomatous dwarf shrubs, usually less than two feet tall, are common and include dwarf live oak (Quercus minima), runner oak (Q. elliottii), shiny blueberry (Vaccinium myrsinites), Darrow's blueberry (V. darrowii), and dwarf huckleberry (Gaylussacia dumosa). The herbaceous layer consists predominantly of grasses, including wiregrass (Aristida stricta var. beyrichiana), dropseeds (Sporobolus curtissii, S. floridanus), panicgrasses (Dichanthelium spp.), and broomsedges (Andropogon spp.) and a large number of showy forbs. Typical flatwoods animals include: oak toad (Bufo quercicus), little grass frog (Pseudacris ocularis), narrowmouth toad (Gastrophryne carolinensis), black racer, corn snake (Elaphe guttata), southeastern kestrel (Falco sparverius), brown-headed nuthatch (Sitta pusilla), pine warbler (Dendroica pinus), Bachman s sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis), cotton rat, cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus), black bear (Ursus americanus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargentius), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Maritime Hammock Maritime hammock is a predominantly evergreen hardwood forest growing on stabilized coastal dunes lying at varying distances from the shore. Although it originally occurred in virtually continuous bands along the coast of Florida, this natural community type is now dissected into short strips by development and is rapidly disappearing. Small pockets of maritime hammock are found throughout the Plan Area, Page 33 of 74

34 but are largely absent from the Panhandle Region. Species composition varies considerably from north to south with the temperate species in northern Florida gradually giving way to more tropical vegetation in south Florida. From the Georgia border to north of Cape Canaveral, live oak (Quercus virginiana), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), and red bay (Persea borbonia) are the principal canopy trees. Additional canopy species include pignut hickory (Carya glabra) and southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora). Characteristic subcanopy species include red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and American holly (Ilex opaca). Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), tough bully (Sideroxylon tenax), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) are typical shrubs found in this community. The herbaceous groundcover layer is generally sparse. In south and southwest Florida, canopy trees often include gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), false mastic (Sideroxylon foetidissimum), inkwood (Exothea paniculata), white stopper (Eugenia axillaris), strangler fig (Ficus aurea), seagrape (Coccoloba uvifera), Spanish stopper (Eugenia foetida), poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum), blolly (Guapira discolor), and Florida Keys blackbead (Pithecellobium keyense). Common shrubs include myrsine (Rapanea punctata), Simpson s stopper (Myrcianthes fragrans), marlberry (Ardisia escallonioides), wild coffee (Psychotria nervosa), snowberry (Chiococca alba), and white indigoberry (Randia aculeata). Typical animals of the maritime hammock include squirrel treefrogs (Hyla squirella), ring-necked snakes (Diadophis punctatus), rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta), and gray squirrel (Sciuris carolinensis). Migrating birds rely on these forests for food and shelter following trans-oceanic or trans-gulf migrations. Coastal Grassland Coastal grassland is a predominantly herbaceous community occupying the drier portions of the transition zone between beach dunes and communities dominated by woody species, such as coastal strand or maritime hammock. It occurs primarily on the broader barrier islands and capes along the coast of Florida. This community occurs in all regions of the Plan Area, but is relatively uncommon. Vegetation consists mainly of pioneer dune-building grasses, such as seaoats (Uniola paniculata), bitter panicgrass (Panicum amarum), and saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens). A variety of other herbaceous species, including bluestem grasses (Andropogon spp., Schizachyrium spp.), camphorweed (Heterotheca subaxillaris), and earleaf greenbrier (Smilax auriculata), are also typically found in this habitat. Characteristic fauna include ghost crabs and savannah sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis). Coastal grasslands serve as important habitat for six subspecies of beach mouse (Peromyscus spp.) and as nesting areas for several rare shorebirds. Page 34 of 74

35 Hydric Hammock Hydric hammock is an evergreen hardwood and/or palm forest with a variable understory of palms and ferns. This community type generally occurs on low, flat, wet sites where limestone may be near the surface and soil moisture is kept high. In the Plan Area, hydric hammock occurs only in the Panhandle and Gulf Regions. This community generally has a closed canopy of oaks and palms, an open understory, and a sparse to moderate groundcover of grasses and ferns. The canopy is dominated by swamp laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia) and/or live oak (Q. virginiana) with varying amounts of cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), American elm (Ulmus americana), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and water oak (Q. nigra). Cabbage palm is a common to dominant component of hydric hammock throughout most of Florida. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) may be relatively abundant in some areas, while slash pine (Pinus elliottii) is less frequently encountered. In addition to saplings of canopy species, the understory may contain a number of small trees and shrubs, such as American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), swamp dogwood (Cornus foemina), small-leaf viburnum (Viburnum obovatum), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), swamp bay (Persea palustris), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), and needle palm (Rhapidophyllum hystrix). Vines and epiphytic vegetation are common. Typical animals of this community include green anole (Anolis carolinensis), flycatchers, warblers, and gray squirrel. Tidal Swamp Marine and estuarine tidal swamps are natural communities characterized as dense, low forests occurring along relatively flat, intertidal and supratidal shorelines of low wave energy along southern and central Florida. Many acres of tidal swamps have been destroyed in Florida through diking and flooding, ditching for mosquito control, and dredging and filling activities. This habitat type is present within the Plan Area on the east coast of Florida south of Indian River County, and throughout the Gulf Region. Four species of trees are dominant within tidal swamps: red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa), and buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus). Typical animals of the tidal swamp include raccoon, mangrove water snake (Nerodia clarkii compressicauda), brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), white ibis (Eudocimus albus), osprey (Pandion haliaetus), bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and a variety of shorebirds, herons, and egrets. Also present are sponges, oysters (Crassostrea virginica), marine worms, barnacles, mangrove tree crabs (Aratus pisonii), fiddler crabs (Uca pugilator), and numerous other invertebrates. Tidal swamp habitat serves as a nursery for many of the state s commercially and recreationally important fish species. Page 35 of 74

36 Tidal Marsh Marine and estuarine tidal marshes are generally characterized as expanses of grasses, rushes and sedges along coastlines of low wave-energy and river mouths. Tidal marshes occupy intertidal areas primarily in northern Florida above the freeze line. Below the freeze line, intertidal habitats are often colonized by mangrove trees and become tidal swamp. Within the Plan Area, tidal marsh occurs in all HCP regions except the Southeast. Black needlerush (Juncus roemerianus) and smooth cordgrass (Spartina alternaflora) are the most common plant species within this community, often forming dense, uniform stands. Other typical plants include saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens), gulf cordgrass (Spartina spartinae), salt grass (Distichlis spicata), soft rush (Juncus effusus) and other rushes, marsh elder (Iva frutescens), saltwort (Batis maritima), sea oxeye (Borrichia frutescens), seashore paspalum (Sesuvium spp.), and marsh fleabane (Pluchea foetida). Typical animals associated with the tidal marsh include marsh snail (Ellobium dominicense), mud snail (Ilyanassa obsoleta), spiders, fiddler crabs, isopods, amphipods, diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin), saltmarsh snake (Nerodia clarkii), wading birds, waterfowl, osprey, rails (Rallus sp.), marsh wrens (Cistothorus palustris), seaside sparrows (Ammodramus maritimus), muskrat (Neofiber alleni) and raccoon. Many commercially and recreationally important species such as shrimp, blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), oysters, sharks, grouper, snapper and mullet also use tidal marshes throughout part or all of their life cycles. Freshwater Marsh This community type is defined as a vegetated non-forested wetland that is usually inundated. Freshwater marsh is relatively uncommon within the Plan Area, occurring primarily within the Panhandle Region. Vegetative species composition is dependent on hydroperiod and depth of water. It can generally be divided into submersed, floating-leaved plants within deeper areas of the marsh, and emergent, grassy plants within the shallowest portions. Shrub patches may also be present within any of these zones. Typical species found in the deeper areas of freshwater marshes include white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata), American lotus (Nelumbo lutea), and yellow pondlily (Nuphar advena). The emergent zone often contains pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.), cattail (Typha spp.), maidencane (Panicum hemitomon), sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense), and bulrush (Scirpus spp.). Freshwater marshes support a wide variety of amphibian, reptile, wading bird, and mammal species. Wet Prairie Wet prairie is an herbaceous natural community found on continuously wet, but rarely inundated, soils. It typically occurs at intermediate elevations between lower lying freshwater marshes, bogs, or dome swamps and slightly higher wet or mesic flatwoods, or dry prairie. In the Plan Area, this community type occurs only within the Panhandle Region. Wet prairies are typically dominated by wiregrass (Aristida strica) in the drier portions, along with foxtail club-moss (Lycopodiella alopecuroides), Page 36 of 74

37 cutover muhly (Muhlenbergia expansa), yellow butterwort (Pinguicula lutea), and savannah meadowbeauty (Rhexia alifanus). The wetter portions are typically dominated by sedges, such as plumed beaksedge (Rhynchospora plumosa), featherbristle beaksedge (R. oligantha), Baldwin s nutrush (Scleria baldwinii), and slenderfruit nutrush (S. georgiana). Carnivorous plant species, such as pitcher plants (Sarracenia spp.), sundews (Drosera spp.), butterworts (Pinguicula spp), and bladderworts (Utricularia spp.) may also be common. Animals common to wet prairies include a great variety of frogs, snakes, song and predatory birds, as well as marsh rabbits (Sylvilagus palustris), cotton rats, and cotton mice. Wet Flatwoods Wet flatwoods are pine forests with a sparse midstory and a dense groundcover of hydrophytic grasses, herbs, and low shrubs. These communities typically form in the ecotones between marshes and mesic flatwoods. They are relatively uncommon in the Plan Area, occurring only in Gulf County in the Panhandle Region. In northern Florida, the wet flatwoods canopy typically consists of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). Representative subcanopy trees include sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), swamp bay (Persea palustris), loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens), dahoon (Ilex cassine), and wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera). Shrubs include large gallberry (Ilex spp.), fetterbush (Lyonia lucida), titi (Cliftonia spp.), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolia), red chokeberry (Photinia pyrifolia), and azaleas (Rhododendron canescens, R. viscosum). Herbaceous groundcover often includes wiregrass (Aristida stricta), blue maidencane (Amphicarpum muhlenbergianum), and/or hydrophytic species such as toothache grass (Ctenium aromaticum), Curtiss sandgrass (Calamovilfa curtissii), cutover muhly (Muhlenbergia expansa), coastal plain yellow-eyed grass (Xyris ambigua), Carolina redroot (Lachnanthes caroliana), beaksedges (Rhynchospora spp.), and pitcherplants (Sarracenia spp.). Bottomland Forest Bottomland forest is a deciduous, or mixed deciduous/evergreen, closed-canopy forest with either a dense shrub layer with sparse groundcover or a limited understory with a groundcover of herbs, ferns, and/or grasses. Within the Plan Area, bottomland forest only occurs in a Sarasota County park. This community typically occurs on low-lying terraces and levees within riverine floodplains and in shallow depressions, between swamps (which are normally inundated) and uplands. Inundation of bottomland forests occurs only during higher floods. The canopy may be quite diverse with both deciduous and evergreen hydrophytic to mesophytic trees. Dominant species include sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), spruce pine (Pinus glabra), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), swamp laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia), water oak (Q. nigra), live oak (Q. virginiana), swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), American elm (Ulmus americana), red maple (Acer rubrum), and cypress (Taxodium spp.). Subcanopy trees often include loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), swamp dogwood (Cornus foemina), possumhaw (Ilex decidua), dahoon (I. cassine), dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor), swamp bay (Persea Page 37 of 74

38 palustris), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum). Ground cover is generally variable, with species composition and relative abundance depending on whether mesic or hydric conditions prevail. Characteristic species include witchgrasses (Dichanthelium spp.), slender woodoats (Chasmanthium laxum), and sedges (Carex spp.). Animals typical of bottomland forest include many salamander species, five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus), ring-necked snake, rat snake, eastern king snake (Lampropeltis getula), cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus), wood duck (Aix sponsa), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus), screech-owl (Otus asio), greathorned owl (Bubo virginianus), ruby throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris), acadian flycatcher (Empidonax virescens), pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus), hermit thrush (Catharus guttatu), cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum), yellow-throated warbler (Geothlypis trichas), opossum (Didelphis virginiana), gray squirrel, raccoon, gray fox, bobcat, and white-tailed deer. The Human Dimension Population & Growth Data from the United States Census Bureau indicates that the human population in the state of Florida reached 18.8 million in 2010, a 17.6 percent increase from the 16 million recorded during the 2000 Census (Table 6-9). Approximately 20 percent of this increase is attributable to births outnumbering deaths while approximately 80 percent is attributable to net migration (FDEP 2010). In those 25 coastal counties with an established CCCL, which account for 64.2 percent of Florida s total population, there was a somewhat smaller increase in growth (13.9 percent) during that period. The Northeast Region had the fastest growth (18.2 percent) of any region in the Plan Area over the last decade, and with a current population of 1.7 million, accounts for 14.2 percent of the total population in all CCCL counties combined (Table 6-9). The largest county in the Northeast Region is Duval, with a population of 864,263. Over the last decade, it had the slowest growth (11.0 percent) of any county in the region. Flagler County, the smallest of the five counties comprising the Northeast Region (95,696), was the fastest-growing county (92.0 percent), not only in the region but in the entire Plan Area. More specifically, Palm Coast in Flagler County was identified as the fastest growing of all 366 metro areas included in the United States in 2010 census. The Panhandle Region saw the least growth (10.7 percent) of any region in the Plan Area (Table 6-9). With a population of 881,120, it currently accounts for only 7.3 percent of the total population in all CCCL counties combined. Walton and Santa Rosa Counties showed the fastest growth in the region (35.6 percent and 28.6 percent, respectively), while Escambia had the slowest (1.1 percent). The three least populous counties within the entire Plan Area (Franklin, Gulf, and Walton) are all found in the Page 38 of 74

39 Panhandle Region. Franklin, with a population of 11,549, is the smallest. Escambia County (297,619) is the largest county in the Panhandle Region. The Southeast Region, with a 2010 population of 6.6 million, is the largest of all HCP regions and accounts for over half of the total population in all CCCL counties combined (Table 6-9). Within the Southeast Region, the fastest growth (44.2 percent) by far occurred in St. Lucie County, while the slowest was in Broward County (7.7 percent). Indian River (138,028) and Martin Counties (146,318) currently have the smallest populations in the region, while Miami-Dade (2.5 million) has the largest. There is a considerable disparity in population densities within the Southeast Region. The four northernmost counties have a combined population of only 1.1 million, whereas approximately 5.6 million people inhabit the three southernmost counties. Those three counties account for 46.1 percent of the entire population in all CCCL counties combined. The Miami-Fort Lauderdale-Pompano Beach metro area (Miami-Dade and Broward Counties) is among the 10 most populous metro areas nationwide. The Gulf Region of the HCP Plan Area has a current population of 2.8 million and accounts for 23 percent of the total population in all CCCL counties combined (Table 6-9). It also contains the only two CCCL counties, Monroe and Pinellas, that showed negative growth over the last decade (-8.2 percent and -0.5 percent, respectively). Pinellas County, with a population of 916,542 is the largest county in the Gulf Region, while Monroe (73,090) is the smallest. Lee County (618,754) had the fastest growth rate (40.3 percent) in the region, and the Cape Coral-Fort Myers metro area of Lee County was the second fastest growing metro area in the state. Page 39 of 74

40 Table 6-9. Current populations and population growth trends for the 25 CCCL counties included in the Florida Beaches Habitat Conservation Plan Area. Region County 2010 Population 1 Percent Change Since Northeast Southeast Gulf Panhandle NASSAU 73, % DUVAL 864, % ST JOHNS 190, % FLAGLER 95, % VOLUSIA 494, % Total Northeast Region 1,717, % BREVARD 543, % INDIAN RIVER 138, % ST LUCIE 277, % MARTIN 146, % PALM BEACH 1,320, % BROWARD 1,748, % MIAMI-DADE 2,496, % Total Southeast Region 6,670, % MONROE 73, % COLLIER 321, % LEE 618, % CHARLOTTE 159, % SARASOTA 379, % MANATEE 322, % PINELLAS 916, % Total Gulf Region 2,792, % FRANKLIN 11, % GULF 15, % BAY 168, % WALTON 55, % OKALOOSA 180, % SANTA ROSA 151, % ESCAMBIA 297, % Total Panhandle Region 881, % Total Plan Area 12,061, % Total Florida State 18,801, % 1 Source: 2010 U.S. Census ( accessed 6/5/13) 2 Source: 2000 U.S. Census ( accessed 6/5/13) Page 40 of 74

41 Archaeological & Cultural Resources The Plan Area contains numerous archaeological and cultural resources. The native inhabitants of Florida left numerous shell middens (ancient refuse mounds), many of which have probably been inundated by the sea or lost to urban development; however, more continue to be discovered along Florida's coastline (Milanich 1994). Shell middens containing evidence of tools, bones, pottery, and other cultural remains are invaluable archaeological resources and can provide information regarding the use of the coast, diet, behavior, and activities of early inhabitants. While archaeological sites are present throughout the Plan Area, it appears that coastal middens are most prevalent in the Northeast and Gulf Regions (FDEP, accessed 6/5/13). Within the Northeast Region, shell middens are present in all counties, with many of the documented sites occurring within state parks (Duval, St. Johns, and Flagler Counties) and on Federal lands (e.g., the Canaveral National Seashore in Volusia County). There are also numerous archaeological sites inland from the CCCL in St. Johns, Flagler, and Volusia Counties. In the Gulf Region, a few pre-columbian shell mounds are known to be present within the Plan Area within Lee and Charlotte Counties. In the Panhandle Region, shell mounds are known to be present in Franklin, Bay, and Walton Counties. Within the Southeast Region, pre-columbian mounds can be found in Miami- Dade County within the Oleta River State Park. Another shell mound is present just west of the Plan Area within the Indian Mound archaeological site in Dubois Park, Palm Beach County. The sites noted above are not inclusive; shell middens generally can be found within 91 m (100 yds) of any major water source (B. Johnson, Florida Archaeological Services, personnel communication 2013). Threats posed to cultural resources within the Plan Area include unauthorized archaeological exploration and collection, excavation and destruction associated with urban development, recreational activities, inundation caused by projected sea level rise, and storm activity. State and Federal parks are located in every county within the Plan Area. In addition to the previously described shell middens, some contain historical military forts (e.g., Fort Clinch State Park and Fort Matanzas National Monument located in Nassau and St. Johns Counties, respectively) and museums (McLarty Treasure Museum and Sebastian Fishing Museum, both located in Sebastian Inlet State Park, Indian River County). There are a number of historic shipwrecks representing underwater archaeological treasures present in Florida, primarily in the Southeast and Panhandle Regions (National Park Service, accessed 6/5/13). Within the Southeast Region, Indian River, St. Lucie, and Martin Counties comprise the Treasure Coast. As its name implies, numerous Spanish galleons carrying treasures back to Europe went down along this stretch of coast during storms. Doubloons and other treasures have been found along the shoreline following the passage of present-day storm events that uncover previously buried artifacts. Professional salvage Page 41 of 74

42 operations continue along this stretch of coast to this day. Known shipwreck sites are located along the coast in Indian River, Martin, Palm Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade Counties. In the Panhandle Region, shipwreck sites can be found in Bay, Walton, Santa Rosa, and Escambia Counties. In the Gulf Region, shipwrecks can be found in Monroe and Manatee Counties. Anthropogenic threats to these submerged maritime heritage resources include dredging-related activities, burial by fill material from beach nourishment projects, increased turbidity levels near dredging and disposal sites, anchoring and looting by treasure hunters, and damage caused by bottom trawlers used by commercial fishers. Environmental threats to these sites include strong currents and storm events, both of which can scatter artifacts over a large area. Coastal Land Uses and Development Patterns Existing Development Statewide View Florida has 20 major population centers and 15 of them are located in coastal counties around a bay, an estuary or at the mouth of a river that flows into the ocean. Over 75 percent of the Florida population lives in coastal counties (FOCC 2010). The December 2005 Update to a 1992 Assessment of Florida s Remaining Coastal Upland Natural Communities by FNAI (Johnson and Gulledge 2005) described changes in several hundred coastal sites around the state. The updated report documented that of the 19,478 acres of privately owned coastal upland acreage in natural condition in , 7,479 acres (38 percent) remained undeveloped in 2004, 7,151 acres (37 percent) were acquired by public agencies (or non-profit conservation organizations) and remained in natural condition, and 4,849 acres (25 percent) were developed (including 53 acres which were acquired by public agencies and developed for public access, parking lots, roads, and other uses). The state of Florida has approximately 367,000 coastal properties or those parcels seaward of the nearest shore-parallel road (NOEP 2008). Statewide, approximately 70 percent of coastal real estate is residential with approximately 60 percent of these properties classified as cooperative or condominium. Commercial properties constitute approximately 4 percent of the coastal parcels and of these approximately 70 percent are hotels and lodging facilities. Approximately 9 percent of coastal properties are vacant; 4 percent are institutional (not-for-profit enterprises); 8 percent are government; and 5 percent are miscellaneous (agricultural, dunes and submerged lands). Page 42 of 74

43 The value of coastal properties, as determined by county property appraisers for the purposes of property tax collection, is again dominated by residential parcels (NOEP 2008). Eighty-two (82) percent of Florida s coastal property value is from residential land uses, while 7 percent of property value is from commercial parcels. Vacant and government-owned properties each account for approximately 5 percent of totaled coastal property values. Of the 82 percent of property value accounted for by residential parcels, approximately 60 percent is attributed to condominiums and cooperatives, 36 percent is attributed to single-family parcels, and 4 percent is attributed to miscellaneous residential parcels (multi-family and mobile home properties; NOEP 2008). Regional Descriptions The Northeast Region consists of the five counties in the northeast corner of the state ranging southwards through Nassau, Duval, St. Johns, Flagler and Volusia counties. This region contains about 13 percent of the total number of statewide coastal properties and approximately 11 percent of the state s coastal property value. The Southeast Region extends from Brevard County in the north to Miami-Dade County in the south. This region accounts for nearly half (47 percent) of the total number of statewide coastal properties (NOEP 2008). These properties correspondingly carry 45 percent of the total statewide coastal property value. The Southwest Region extends from Pinellas County in the north to Monroe County in the south. This region accounts for just over one-fifth (21 percent) of the total number of statewide coastal properties (NOEP 2008). These properties correspondingly carry 27 percent of the total statewide coastal property value. The Northwest Region extends from Escambia County in the west to Wakulla County in the east. This region accounts for nearly one-fifth (17 percent) of the total number of statewide coastal properties (NOEP 2008). These properties correspondingly carry 16 percent of the total statewide coastal property value. The Big Bend Region extends from Jefferson County in the west to Pasco County in the south. This region accounts for a relatively small amount (2 percent) of the total number of statewide coastal properties (NOEP 2008). These properties correspondingly carry 1 percent of the total statewide coastal property value. Page 43 of 74

44 The Northeast, Southeast and Southwest Regions have comparable distributions between residential, commercial and other (institutional, government and miscellaneous) uses. In each of these three regions, between 80 and 85 percent of coastal properties are residential and between 5 and 10 percent are commercial (NOEP 2008). Other uses account for between 10 and 15 percent of the coastal properties. The Northwest Region is significantly different in that approximately 65 percent of the properties are residential and approximately 30 percent are other (NOEP 2008). The larger proportion of other use in the Northwest Region is mainly attributable to large military tracts of land that occupy the coastal properties. The Big Bend Region has residential and other uses proportionally in between the Southern and Northwest Regions, but has a significantly lower proportion of commercial properties on the coast, at less than 5 percent. Future Development Approximately 10 percent of the coastal properties in Florida are vacant (NOEP 2008). These vacant properties contain much valuable habitat within the jurisdiction of the CCCL and, dependent on their designated future land use, have different potential for development and associated impacts to habitat in the future. The future land use for all vacant parcels within CCCL jurisdiction was catalogued during preparation of the FBHCP and is summarized in Table The grouping of land uses under Residential & Commercial and Parks & Conservation is meant to segregate those vacant properties likely to have high impacts to habitat, if developed (Residential & Commercial), and those likely to have low or no impacts to habitat in the future if developed under the Parks & Conservation land use designation. Page 44 of 74

45 Table Future Land Use for all Vacant Parcels. Page 45 of 74

46 Economic Importance of Beaches Recreation and Tourism The state of Florida is a leader in domestic and international tourism. Florida boasts an abundance of natural and manmade attractions, including its number one attraction, its beaches. Beaches provide multiple benefits to the state including: enhancing property values; providing protection from storm surges; habitat for plants, animals and recreation; employment; wages; and income for citizens. Tourism in Florida is the top-rated industry in the state with an estimated 87.3 million visitors to the state in 2011, an increase of 6.1 percent over 2010 figures. The industry directly employs over one million people and contributes about $67.2 billion in tourism/recreation taxable sales per year, generating approximately 20.6 percent of the state s sales tax revenue ( accessed 6/5/13). The four regions within the FBHCP Plan Area all have a significant tourism and recreational beach use component in their economies. The two regions with the highest percentage of employees in the Leisure and Hospitality Sector are the Northeast Region with 16.1 percent and the Gulf Region with 16.9 percent. The top two counties with employees in the Leisure & Hospitality Sector are Monroe with 32.3 percent (Gulf Region) and Miami-Dade with 24.8 percent (Southeast Region; Table 6-11). Both of these counties attract primarily beach-oriented tourists. In comparison to these figures, Florida state figures show an average of 12.7 percent in the Leisure and Hospitality Sector. In 2007, coastal hotels and motels in the Southeast Region had a property value of $3.9 billion (60 percent of the total of all regions; NOEP 2008). The Gulf Region had the second largest share at 21.5 percent. The Florida Office of Economic and Demographic Research (EDR) is a research arm of the Legislature principally concerned with forecasting economic and social trends affecting policy making, revenues, and appropriations. The EDR holds an annual Florida Economic Estimating Conference (FEEC) and develops long-run tables with informed estimates that include the number of predicted Florida visitors through The latest FEEC conference was held February 21, 2011 and predicted that visitation in the state would grow from 85,439 in to 112,950 visitors in These visitors will be concentrated heavily in the beach communities and Plan Area counties (EDR website, accessed 9/12/11). Page 46 of 74

47 Table Percent of Employment in Leisure and Hospitality by FBHCP Region. Northeast Region Counties % Employees In Leisure And Hospitality NASSAU 23.2 DUVAL 9.7 ST. JOHNS 20.4 FLAGLER 13.2 VOLUSIA 13.8 Average 16.06% Southeast Region Counties % Employees In Leisure And Hospitality BREVARD 10.9 INDIAN RIVER 13.2 ST. LUCIE 10.4 MARTIN 13.7 PALM BEACH 13.7 BROWARD 11.0 MIAMI DADE 24.8 Average 14.00% Gulf Region Counties % Employees In Leisure And Hospitality MONROE 32.3 COLLIER 18.5 LEE 15.3 CHARLOTTE 14.2 SARASOTA 14.6 MANATEE 11.9 PINELLAS 11.2 Average 16.85% Panhandle Region Counties % Employees In Leisure And Hospitality FRANKLIN 20.2 GULF 11.2 BAY 16.7 WALTON 23.4 OKALOOSA 15.5 SANTA ROSA 13.1 ESCAMBIA 10.9 Average for Plan Area 15.9% Source: EDR 2011, County Profiles. Page 47 of 74

48 Beach Attendance General Beach Use One study by the National Ocean Economics Program (NOEP) categorized three user groups for Florida beaches: out-of-state tourists; in-state tourists traveling more than 50 miles from home; and local residents. Surveys of out-of-state tourists and in-state tourists provided a basis for estimating annual beach activity days (person days) spent by these two groups of users in the NOEP report (2008). Note that the report does not use actual counts of beach attendance, but uses estimates made by using available data (Figure 6-3). The number of person days devoted to beach-going on Florida s beaches totaled million person days in 2003 and reached million in 2006 before falling back to million in The Southeast Region led other regions in beach use, at 40.2 million person days in 2007, with a high of 57.6 million person days in The decline in person days in 2004 occurred primarily along the state s Gulf Coast and may have reflected the occurrence of category 4 Hurricanes Charley and Ivan. The sharp dip in 2007 activity days occurred in the Southeast Region at a time of state economic recession and sharply higher gasoline prices. Furthermore from 2000 to 2010, the total number of beach access points increased from 1,692 to 2,142 a 26.6 percent increase (FDEP 2010). Figure 6-3. Estimated Beach Activity Days by Region, Source: NOEP The 2009 Florida Coastal Issues Survey asked respondents to identify those activities they are most likely to engage in when visiting coastal areas. The four most frequently performed activities are sunbathing, swimming/surfing, photography/birding/shelling, and picnicking, at rates of 79, 68, 62 and 61 percent, respectively (FDEP 2010). The top three most frequent activities (sunbathing, swimming/surfing, and photography/birding/shelling) remained the same as those identified in the 1999 Florida Coastal Issues Survey; however, their rank order was reversed. Other frequent activities (with greater than 40 percent of affirmative responses) included visiting cultural sites and fishing. Page 48 of 74

49 State Beach Park Use Attendance at Florida state beach parks varies by Plan Region, but shows the average use of beaches at the State Parks at over 11 million visits per year (Figure 6-4). In fiscal year (FY) 2007, the Florida system of State Parks provided a direct economic impact of over $936,000,000 to local economies throughout the state. For every 1,000 persons attending a State Park, total direct economic impact exceeded $43,200. The beach parks in the Southeast Region attracted the most visits, at over 5.4 million visits in FY The region with the second highest attendance at the beach parks is the Southwest or Gulf Region at 3.6 million visits in FY (NOEP 2008). Figure 6-4. Florida State Parks Attendance by Plan Region, FY2003 FY Source: NOEP Tax Base Information for this section is partially extracted from the 2008 NOEP report, which defined coastal property as a parcel that is seaward of the nearest shore-parallel road. For most of Florida, this definition encompasses shorefront property plus one to two tiers of parcels inland from the shoreadjacent parcel. This definition permitted an identification of parcels using geographic information systems (GIS) applied to the Florida property tax records. Florida s 367,000 coastal properties were valued for tax purposes in 2006 at $181 billion, yielding $2 billion in property tax revenues. Coastal parcels made up 7.5 percent of the value of all real estate in Florida. From , the number of coastal parcels grew by about 10 percent, but the value of parcels more than doubled, which reflected the strong demand for coastal real estate in the early part of this decade. In 2007, the average market value of a coastal single family home was $913,527. The average value of a coastal condominium or cooperative was $427,906 (NOEP 2008). Page 49 of 74

50 Figure 6-5 gives the 2007 average coastal property values for the Plan Area. The Northwest area equates to the FBHCP Panhandle Plan Area and the Southwest region in the chart equates to the FBHCP Gulf Region. The Big Bend region is not a part of the FBHCP Plan Area. In 2007, the Southeast Region accounted for the largest share of property tax revenues from coastal parcels. This region includes the major metropolitan areas of southern Florida. The Southwest or FBHCP Gulf Region had the highest average coastal property value ($870,382), but the Southeast Region had the highest residential value, reflecting the strong demand for shore property in urban areas. The high values of urban coastal property are also reflected in the fact that the coastal properties of the Southeast Region accounted for more than half of the value of all the property taxes paid of all Florida coastal property. Among the coastal counties, Collier County in the Southwest or FBHCP Gulf Region had the highest average parcel value in 2007 of $1,681,110. Bay County in the Northwest or FBHCP Panhandle Region had the highest proportion of its property values located in the coastal area (41 percent). The largest coastal property value growth in the FBHCP Plan Area was Flagler County (200 percent) in the Northeast Region. Commercial coastal properties have the highest value in all regions of Florida. Figure 6-5. Distribution of Average Coastal Property Values by Coastal Region, Source: NOEP Coastal properties in the southern half of the state pay a larger share of property taxes than do coastal properties in the northern regions. About one-half of the property taxes in the Southeast Region are paid by coastal properties; coastal properties account for more than one-quarter of the taxes in the Southwest or Gulf FBHCP region. The coastal properties in the state paid more than $2.4 billion in property taxes in The Southeast Region paid $1 billion and the Southwest or FBHCP Gulf Region paid more than $500 million (Figure 6-6). Regionally, the Southeast Region paid the highest proportion of taxes at 50 percent of the total; the Southwest Region paid 28 percent; the Northeast Region paid 12 percent; the Page 50 of 74

51 Northwest Region paid 10 percent; and the Big Bend Region paid less than one-half percent (NOEP 2008). Figure 6-6. Property Tax Revenues from Coastal Parcels by Region. Source: NOEP Coastal Stewardship Community Contribution Florida benefits from a coastal community that has significantly increased its environmental stewardship activities over the past 10 years (FDEP 2010). According to the 2009 Florida Coastal Issues Survey, the percentage of respondents indicating they had been involved in hands-on coastal community activities such as coastal cleanups, water quality monitoring, dune revegetation, etc... increased from 17 percent in 1999 to 39 percent in When asked which specific activities they engaged in, 25 percent of respondents indicated participation in an annual coastal cleanup event, 10 percent participated in turtle watch/nest count programs, and 9 percent participated in non-native plant removal. The next three most popular stewardship activities (all tied at 8 percent of respondents) included dune plantings, environmental monitoring, and marine mammal stranding and rescue. Compared to the 1999 Florida Coastal Issues Survey, all these stewardship activities enjoyed an increase in participation by a range of 5 to 10 percent. However, stewardship is not limited to participation in the above-mentioned activities. Financial contribution via purchase of specialty license plates is another form of stewardship. Purchasing specialty license plates allows citizens to make a statement about an issue they consider important (by placement of the plate on their vehicle) and contribute funds to a specific cause or organization (by payment of the additional fee to obtain the specialty plate). Florida s specialty license plate program included 120 license plates at the end of 2010, 17 of which were environmentally focused (FDEP 2010). Page 51 of 74

52 Of the 17 environmentally focused plates, five focused on issues related to the FBHCP. These five are listed below along with their total net revenue for fiscal years : Conserve Wildlife - $24,485,346; Helping Sea Turtles Survive - $12,664,206; Protect Our Reefs - $5,040,811; Discover Florida Oceans - $1,458,675; and Save Our Seas - $2,611,770. Community Views It is important to understand the impact the coastal community has in protecting the coastal environment through its demonstrated willingness to volunteer time and contribute money to local causes. The 2009 Florida Coastal Issues Survey asked respondents to designate eight coastal issues as very important, somewhat important, not important or don t know. The list of the 8 coastal issues below is ranked by the percentage of respondents that designated the issue as very important (FDEP 2010): Coastal Hazards 80 percent; Environmental Quality 79 percent; Protection of Ocean Resources 76 percent; Marine Debris 65 percent; Public Access 61 percent; Preservation of Waterfront Communities 57 percent; Energy Facility and Government Facility Siting 49 percent; and Aquaculture 47 percent. Another survey by Florida Sea Grant in 2008 requested prioritization of coastal issues. This survey was based on the input of 785 stakeholders and citizens that had knowledge of Florida coastal issues, either through participation in the Florida Sea Grant advisory committee or education by the University of Florida s Florida Natural Resources Leadership Institute or Florida Master Naturalist Program Coastal Module (FDEP 2010). The top eight ranked coastal issues, in order of prioritization, are listed below: (1) Water Resources. (2) Environmental Human Impact Awareness. (3) Restrict Shorefront Development. (4) Identify/Protect Essential Marine Habitats. (5) Protect Beaches/Shorefront Ecosystems. (6) Species Protection (Manatees, Dolphins, Turtles, Birds). (7) Habitat Restoration (Dunes, Mangroves, Seagrass, Reefs). Page 52 of 74

53 (8) Fisheries Management Stock Enhancement/Limits/Zones. Plan Area Physical Characterization Geomorphology and Coastal Processes Florida s marine forces have been the dominant factor in shaping its land surface. When the sea covered Florida, the shallow marine currents and their associated erosion and deposition shaped the shallow seabed with subsequent erosional forces modifying this geometry. Ancient seas left behind extensive flat plains and scarps where old coastlines were cut into the uplands. The coastal areas of Florida are composed of negative features such as estuaries and lagoons, and positive features such as barrier islands, coastal ridges, and relict spits and bars, with intervening coast-parallel valleys. The majority of the Florida east coast and the middle section of the west coast are marine depositional coasts dominated by barrier beaches, barrier islands and spits, and overwash fans (Randazzo and Jones 1997). From the Ochlocknee River west to Port St. Joe, along the Apalachicola river delta, the coast is dominated by barrier islands. Farther west, to the Alabama state line, drowned estuaries are bordered by barrier beaches and spits. Southeast and Northeast Regions The Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) of the USACE surveyed the Inner Continental Shelf off eastern Florida to obtain information on bottom morphology and sediments, subbottom structure, and sand deposits suitable for restoration of nearby beaches. Primary survey data consists of seismic reflection profiles and sediment cores. That part of the survey area comprising the Inner Shelf between Palm Beach and Cape Kennedy was characterized in a report (Meisburger and Duane 1971). The survey found that sediment on beaches adjacent to the study area consisted of quartzose sand and shell fragments. The median size of midtide samples generally range between 0.3 to 0.5 mm (1.74 to 1.0 phi) diameters. The Shelf in the study area is a submerged sedimentary plain of low relief. Ridge-like shoals generally of medium-to- coarse (0.25 to 1.00 mm) calcareous sand contain material suitable for beach restoration (Meisburger and Duane 1971). A second study for CERC by Meisburger and Field (1975) depicted the geomorphology of the Florida Atlantic coast from Cape Canaveral to Fernandina Beach near the Georgia border. This study found that the northern Florida continental shelf is a submerged coastal-plain surface ranging in width from15 mi (25 km) off Cape Canaveral to 68 mi (110 km) near Georgia. Seismic-reflection profiles of the shallow subbottom to 152 m (500 ft) below the sea floor show six distinct reflection units and five prominent reflectors of regional significance. The lower two units rise southward to a truncated high off the Page 53 of 74

54 Daytona Beach area. Samples of the upper four reflection units show that the lowest unit is composed of compact greenish-gray mud; overlying units are dominantly quartz sand. During the last several thousand years, finer type sediments in the littoral system have been transported seaward overlaying the shoreface and the innermost shelf floor. Outside of the littoral and shoreface zones, there appears to be little modern sedimentation taking place. Reworking of surface sands of the Inner Shelf by waves and currents with continuing transportation and redeposition of winnowed fine grain sands is occurring. Since few streams discharge on the north Florida Atlantic coast, beach and nearshore sands are most likely derived from shore erosion and littoral transport of fluvial sand southward from sources along the Georgia coast. Net littoral transport in southeast Florida is southward. Studies of the southern Atlantic Shelf indicate that shelf sediment transport parallel to the shore may not be an important process. Thus, movement, if any, is probably in a general onshore-offshore direction (Meisburger and Field 1975). Panhandle and Gulf Regions The 400 km-long (249 mi) stretch of coast along the northeastern Gulf of Mexico from Dog Island, Florida, to Morgan Point, Alabama, exhibits highly variable coastal deposits ranging from (1) late Holocene beach-ridge plains located along the Apalachicola protuberance and much of the Alabama coast; (2) a number of late Holocene, overwash-dominated barrier islands and baymouth barriers interspersed along the entire stretch of coast; and (3) a late Pleistocene barrier complex located between Saint Andrew and Choctawhatchee Bays. In 2006, FDEP issued a report containing a geomorphologic and sediment characterization of the southwest Florida coast (URS and CPE 2006). The area covered by this report extends from Pasco County in the north to Collier County in the south. The southwest Florida barrier/inlet system is a mixed energy coastal system that is morphologically diverse as a result of a complicated interaction between relatively small tidal ranges (<1 m; 3.3 ft) and a mean wave height of cm (12-20 in). This Gulf coastal area has the most diverse morphology of any barrier island system in the world, containing about 29 barrier islands and 34 tidal inlets along approximately 300 km (186 mi) of shore (Davis 1997). The geomorphological framework of the central west coast is summarized as having both wave-dominated and mixed energy barrier island morphologies with islands ranging from 2 km (1 mi) to more than 30 km (19 mi) in length. Inlets range from tide-dominated through mixed energy to wavedominated. Washovers are common along this coastal area. The wave climate is mild with mean annual wave heights fluctuating from 0.3 to 0.5 m (1.0 to 1.6 ft) with short mean wave periods ranging from four to five seconds (Davis et al. 2003). Net littoral drift is from north to south. Net littoral drift rates range from 30,000 to 75,000 y 3 /yr (Taylor Engineering 2002). Page 54 of 74

55 Drift and current reversals are commonly observed downdrift of tidal inlets. This phenomenon is particularly true for large tide-dominated inlets that have large and well-developed ebb tidal shoals. Topography Topography of FBHCP Regions In conducting a CCCL analysis to determine the location of a CCCL, the FDEP considers the following topographic factors on a county by county basis: the most recently measured dune elevations, foreshore slopes, offshore slopes, beach widths, adjacent profiles, upland development and vegetation-bluff lines. These factors can vary considerably even within a county and certainly great variation occurs on a region by region basis (FSU, Tables 6-12 through 6-15 give a summary of the topography of each of the four FBHCP regions. Panhandle Region Topography The Panhandle of Florida, in general, has hilly topography and erosive soils and an average of cm (60 in) of rain per year, much of it in the form of torrential downpours (Santa Rosa County Task Force on Stormwater Runoff 2002). The fifteen-county Panhandle Region comprises over km (124.5 mi) of beach shorefront applicable to the CCCL program. The most stable beaches and dune systems are found in Okaloosa County. Dune height varies greatly within the region with the highest dunes, up to 12 m (40 ft), located in Walton County. In some parts of the region, the dune system is noncontinuous and washovers are not uncommon (Table 6-12). Page 55 of 74

56 Table Panhandle Region Topography. County Beach Length Beach/Island Width Beach/Dune Condition Perdido Key = Dunes are discrete Perdido Key =.5 mi. wide ESCAMBIA 41 mi. mounds w/ low elevation Santa Rosa =.25 mi.wide Santa Rosa = Dunes 9-20 ft. high PERDIDO KEY SANTA ROSA ISLAND WALTON BAY OKALOOSA GULF 13 mi 28 mi 25 mi 33 mi (non-federal) 9 mi (Santa Rosa Island & beach from East Pass to east county line) 6 mi (St. Joseph s Spit to Cape San Blas) ft on average Island is 0.5 mi wide ft on average Island is 0.25 mi wide Broad/well-developed Beaches Mainland beaches on west and east & barrier island in middle Wide nourished beaches 0.5 mi average width FRANKLIN 6.8 mi Generally wide beach Discrete mounds with low elevation, except at Gulf Beach Average height = 20 ft Dunes vary in height from 9-20 ft Dune height = ft Areas of broken dune ridges < 10 ft in height Artificial dunes common Shell Island & Crooked Island very low and narrow, exhibiting washovers Gulf of Mexico beaches stable and backed by dunes averaging 16 feet in height Non-continuous dunes with low profile elevation toward south end of spit Dog Island generally low in elevation; higher dunes in limited segments Gulf Region Topography The six counties within the Gulf Region of the FBHCP have over 277 km (172 mi) of beaches under the CCCL program. In general these beaches are narrow and, in some cases, relatively steep. Dune elevation is less than 3m (10 ft) in most cases (Table 6-13). Page 56 of 74

57 Table Gulf Region Topography County Beach Length Beach/Island Width Beach/Dune Condition PINELLAS 35.4 mi Beaches vary in width from 0 to 350 ft Numerous keys & barrier islands from 200-2,000 ft in width Elevation averages from 5-10 ft above MLW. Honeymoon & Caladesi Islands are low & in natural state without coastal development; other islands and keys have been nourished and some have seawalls MANATEE 13 mi Beaches are narrow Beaches are low with elevation generally less than 10 ft SARASOTA CHARLOTTE LEE COLLIER 35 mi (Five barrier islands and one section of mainland) 14 mi (Three barrier islands) 47 mi (Nine barrier islands) 28 mi (Barrier island beaches) Southeast Region Topography Barrier islands 100 ft to 1.3 mi in width; mainland beaches average 100 ft in width Beaches are narrow, 200-2,000 ft in width & relatively steep Islands are 200 ft wide at the narrows to 13,000 ft. at Sanibel Island Northern 17 mi of barrier beaches are narrow & relatively steep Elevations usually under 10 ft Elevations from 5-8 ft Manasota Key higher with maximum dune height of ft Elevations are generally under 10 ft Northern 17 mi of barrier beaches have average dune elevation of 8ft South barrier beaches average 7ft in dune elevation No discernable relief exists south of Lake Okeechobee in southwest Florida. The land is virtually flat. Almost all of the land is at elevations of less than 5 m (15 ft) and much of it is less than 3 m (10 ft). The Everglades (mostly a freshwater marsh) runs down the middle of South Florida from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay. The Everglades is essentially a very shallow, broad river that dominates the watershed and is a major source of recharge water for the Biscayne Aquifer, Southeast Florida s primary water source. Approximately 29 percent of urban Broward County is below 2 m (5 ft) elevation (Florida Atlantic University 2009). Over 365 km (227 mi) of beaches are present in this seven-county region of the Plan Area (FDEP BBCS website, accessed March 2008). The barrier strips in the Southeast Region are generally narrow with the exception of nourished beaches in Miami-Dade County and the 2 km (1.3 mi) average width of the barriers in Indian River County. The dune elevations are their highest in the south end of Brevard Page 57 of 74

58 County (8 m; 25 ft) and in the middle and south end of Martin County (7 m; 24 feet). Lower elevations are prevalent in the northern end of each county s barrier system (Table 6-14). Northeastern Florida Topography The Northeastern Region of Florida is one of varied natural, geographical, and topographical environments. The region is a part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain and contains an assorted mix of land cover types that span from coastal marshes to upland hammocks and scrub areas. On the eastern edge of the zone lie the coastal areas of Flagler, St. Johns, Duval, and Nassau Counties, along the Atlantic Ocean. Within these four counties, the coastal areas are highly diverse and cannot be depicted just as open-ocean shoreline. A strip of coastal ridges, separating the Atlantic Ocean from a narrow lagoon system and the mainland, characterizes Northeast Florida s major coastal area, the Upper East Coast Basin. The Intracoastal Waterway connects the lagoon system in the basin. The other major coastal areas in the region are the St. Mary s River Basin and the Nassau River Basin, both of which are characterized by extensive marsh and wetland areas (Postal et al. 2010). The five counties in the Northeast Region contain over 209 km (130 mi) of CCCL beaches. Barrier island width varies from the narrowest at 152 m (500 ft) in St. Johns and Volusia Counties to km ( mi) in Duval and St. Johns Counties. St. Johns County has both some of the lowest (2 m; 6 ft) and highest (13 m; 44 ft) dune elevations (Table 6-15). Page 58 of 74

59 Table Southeast Region Topography. County Beach Length Beach/Island Width Beach/Dune Condition Dune elevation of 9-25 ft BREVARD 40 mi-long barrier Elevations low in northern end with Beaches are narrow island increasing elevation and beach steepness southward INDIAN RIVER ST. LUCIE MARTIN 22 mi-long barrier island 6 mi barrier island from north county line to Ft. Pierce Inlet; 15 mi barrier island between Ft. Pierce Inlet and south county line 21 mi shoreline of 2 barrier islands (7 mi Hutchinson Island, 14 mi Jupiter Island) Island is 150 ft to 1.3 mi wide North of Ft. Pierce Inlet beaches are narrow Island from north county line to St. Lucie Inlet is narrow, from 200-4,000 ft. in width. Jupiter Island varies in width from 200 ft - 1 mi Beach elevations of 5-15 ft North of Ft. Pierce Inlet, dune elevations = ft On barrier island south of the inlet dune elevations very low at north end and increase to 15 ft at extreme south end of county Hutchinson Island elevations vary from 9-21 ft Northern end of Jupiter Island is low, but dunes in middle and southern parts reach 24 ft PALM BEACH BROWARD MIAMI- DADE Northern coastal barrier island is approximately 13.8 mi in length. Palm Beach section of island is approximately 15.6 mi long. Southernmost barrier strip is 14.7 mi in length. Total length = 34.1 mi 24 mi in length 21.4 mi from north county line to south end of Key Biscayne. (Other keys north of south county line not included) Northern coastal barrier strip varies from 300-7,500 ft in width. Palm Beach barrier varies in width from 250-3,600 ft Southern barrier varies in width from 200 to 2,000 ft Island varies in width from 300-7,500 ft Barrier strip of Miami Beach and other cities varies in width from mi Highest dunes are 50 ft in northern coastal barrier island. Dune height of southern barrier island is up to 30 ft Natural beach elevation is about 15 feet or lower except in northern part from Palm Beach/Broward Co. line to Hillsboro Inlet where elevation may be as high as 23 ft Average elevation along oceanside is 10 ft. Higher elevations occur on oceanside and slopes downward toward the bay. Fisher Island, Virginia Key & Key Biscayne are low in elevation. Page 59 of 74

60 County NASSAU DUVAL ST. JOHNS FLAGLER VOLUSIA Beach Length 14.4 mi (Amelia Island) 15.5 mi (barrier beach) 41 mi (barrier beach) 18 mi (barrier beach) 42 mi (Two barrier beaches) Table Northeast Region Topography. Beach/Island Width Island width is approximately 2 mi Barrier beach ranges in width from 3,000-13,000 ft Barrier ridge range width is from 500 ft.-3 mi Beaches are generally narrow. Barrier island varies in width from 750-7,500 ft Beaches are narrow and steeply sloping Barrier islands vary in width from 500-6,000 ft with avgerage width of 2,500 ft Beach width varies from ft with average width of 170 ft Beach/Dune Condition North shoreline has low beach ridge backed by sandy plain with light grass. Dune elevations range from ft. Southern half of island has higher beach ridges with dune elevations from ft Dune elevations vary from < 9 over 25 ft with gaps in the dune ridge in many places. South half of beaches are highly developed while north beaches are virtually undeveloped. Dune elevations range from 6-44 ft Dune elevation varies in height from ft Central beach section elevation seaward of dune toe or seawall is generally low. Northern and southern beach sections beaches are steeper and narrower with some scarp formation in seaward edge of dunes. Coastal Erosion Causes of Erosion Beach movement within Florida is governed by a complex interaction of physical beach characteristics and sediment transport mechanisms. Physical mechanisms that can contribute to erosion primarily are a function of waves, winds, currents and tides. In general erosion on the Gulf coast of Florida is attributed to tropical storms, hurricanes, nor easter storms, and to natural geomorphic changes caused by the pattern of littoral transport of sand in this area (FDEP 2008b). Page 60 of 74

61 Winds are capable of transporting sand directly off the dry beach. Winds also provide the principal wave generating mechanism, which in turn transport sand cross-shore and longshore within the subaqeuous regions of the beach. The principal erosive influence of wave energy on beaches is through the littoral drift of sediment within the nearshore zone. Wave energy is responsible for longshore sediment transport, which can either remove or deposit sediments within the nearshore portion of the beach. Sediments in the nearshore beach are mobilized through breaking wave energy dissipation, while the constant change in wave energy generates surf zone currents that transport sediments along the shoreline. The volume of longshore transport is dependent upon many factors, including wave height, period, and direction, as well as sediment and beach profile characteristics (EAI 2011). The erosive effects of wind, wave and storm surge are compounded by extra-tropical weather events. Large wave heights, above-average water levels (i.e. storm surge), and strong on-shore winds associated with hurricanes and other tropical events can cause exaggerated damage to the beach and dune system. Eroded and Critically Eroded Beaches By statute (sections and , F.S.), the FDEP is required to designate eroding areas of Florida s coastline as critically or non-critically eroded. Only those areas which have erosion that threatens public or private interests or infrastructure are designated as critically eroding. Some shoreline areas are designated as non-critically eroding even though they may have significant historic or contemporary erosion conditions, because the erosion processes do not currently threaten public or private interests. These areas are monitored in case conditions do become critical. No Federal lands are evaluated or classified by FDEP under this state classification system. The 2011 FDEP inventory of critically eroded areas on the Florida coast was formulated based upon an updated and modified definition of critical erosion. The following definition has been adopted by the Bureau to identify critically eroded areas: Critically eroded area is a segment of the shoreline where natural processes or human activity have caused or contributed to erosion and recession of the beach or dune system to such a degree that upland development, recreational interests, wildlife habitat, or important cultural resources are threatened or lost. Critically eroded areas may also include peripheral segments or gaps between identified critically eroded areas which, although they may be stable or slightly erosional now, their inclusion is necessary for continuity of management of the coastal system or for the design integrity of adjacent beach management projects. Page 61 of 74

62 The designation of a critically eroded beach is a planning requirement of the state of Florida's Beach Management Funding Assistance Program. A segment of beach must first be designated as critically eroded in order to be eligible for state funding for protection, preservation and restoration of the sandy beaches fronting the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Straits of Florida. The FDEP (2011) placed km (397.9 mi) of critically eroding beaches and an additional km (96.2 mi) of noncritically eroding beaches on the list. Extracting the erosion figures for the Plan Area, a total of 566 km (352 mi) of beach in the Plan Area are critically eroding. An additional km (91.4 mi) of beach are classified as non-critically eroding within the Plan Area (Table 6-16). The Southeast Region has the highest number of critically eroding miles of beaches at km (142.1 mi). The lowest number of critically eroding beaches is in the Northeast Region at 83.8 km (52.1 mi). Table Erosion Status for Shorelines within FBHCP Plan Areas. Erosion Trends Region Length of Beach (mi) Critical Non critical Panhandle Gulf Southeast Northeast Total Source: FDEP, BBCS, June Short-term Trends - Critically and Non-critically Eroding Beaches In 1989, the FDEP BBCS issued its first list of erosion areas under sections and , F.S. That list included km (217.6 mi) of critical erosion and another km (114.8 mi) of noncritical erosion statewide. Those numbers increased in 2011 to km (397.0 mi) of critically eroded beach and km (97.5 mi) of non-critically eroded beach (Figure 6-7). The erosion areas list has been revised almost annually since The list was first revised in 1990 to include minor changes in the erosion problem areas for some counties in Northeast, Southeast and Panhandle Regions and major changes were made in Monroe County as a result of a more detailed study of the Florida Keys beaches conducted during The 1991 list included km (227.5 mi) of critical erosion and km (122.1 mi) of non-critical erosion statewide. Page 62 of 74

63 Figure 6-7. Florida Critically and Non-critically Eroded Beaches. Source: FDEP The erosion list was revised in 1992 to include beaches that had been authorized for restoration. This change added some segments and gaps between identified problem areas which, although they were stable or slightly erosional, required nourishment for the design integrity of an authorized beach restoration project. The 1993 list included (232.9 mi) of critical erosion and km (122.6 mi) of non-critical erosion statewide. Significant increases in critically eroded areas were evident in several counties on the Atlantic coast showing the combined impact of Hurricanes Frances and Jeanne. On the northern Gulf of Mexico coast with the impact of Hurricane Ivan, critically eroded segments were also added in several more counties. In 1994, 1995, and 1998 major storms caused significant changes in Florida s shoreline. Three tropical storms and a tropical depression affected Florida in 1994 and three hurricanes and a tropical storm caused more impact in Following Hurricane Opal in 1995, an updated listing was compiled for the Florida Panhandle Region that identified areas that not only had critical erosion, but also where there remained a high degree of post-storm vulnerability. Page 63 of 74