optical sciences Springer Series in founded by H.K.V. Lotsch Editor-in-Chief: W. T. Rhodes, Atlanta

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1 Springer Series in optical sciences 146 founded by H.K.V. Lotsch Editor-in-Chief: W. T. Rhodes, Atlanta Editorial Board: A. Adibi, Atlanta T. Asakura, Sapporo T. W. Hänsch, Garching T. Kamiya, Tokyo F. Krausz, Garching B. Monemar, Linköping H. Venghaus, Berlin H. Weber, Berlin H. Weinfurter, München

2 Springer Series in optical sciences The Springer Series in Optical Sciences, under the leadership of Editor-in-Chief WilliamT.Rhodes,Georgia Institute of Technology, USA, provides an expanding selection of research monographs in all major areas of optics: lasers and quantum optics, ultrafast phenomena, optical spectroscopy techniques, optoelectronics, quantum information, information optics, applied laser technology, industrial applications, and other topics of contemporary interest. With this broad coverage of topics, the series is of use to all research scientists and engineers who need up-to-date reference books. The editors encourage prospective authors to correspond with them in advance of submitting a manuscript. Submission of manuscripts should be made to the Editor-in-Chief or one of the Editors. See also Editor-in-Chief William T. Rhodes Georgia Institute of Technology School of Electrical and Computer Engineering Atlanta, GA , USA bill.rhodes@ece.gatech.edu Editorial Board Ali Adibi Georgia Institute of Technology School of Electrical and Computer Engineering Atlanta, GA , USA adibi@ee.gatech.edu Toshimitsu Asakura Hokkai-Gakuen University Faculty of Engineering 1-1, Minami-26, Nishi 11, Chuo-ku Sapporo, Hokkaido , Japan asakura@eli.hokkai-s-u.ac.jp TheodorW.Hänsch Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik Hans-Kopfermann-Straße Garching, Germany t.w.haensch@physik.uni-muenchen.de Takeshi Kamiya Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports Science and Technology National Institution for Academic Degrees Otsuka, Bunkyo-ku Tokyo , Japan kamiyatk@niad.ac.jp Ferenc Krausz Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München Lehrstuhl für Experimentelle Physik Am Coulombwall Garching, Germany and Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik Hans-Kopfermann-Straße Garching, Germany ferenc.krausz@mpq.mpg.de Bo Monemar Department of Physics and Measurement Technology Materials Science Division Linköping University Linköping, Sweden bom@ifm.liu.se Herbert Venghaus Fraunhofer Institut für Nachrichtentechnik Heinrich-Hertz-Institut Einsteinufer Berlin, Germany venghaus@hhi.de Horst Weber Technische Universität Berlin Optisches Institut Straße des 17. Juni Berlin, Germany weber@physik.tu-berlin.de Harald Weinfurter Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München Sektion Physik Schellingstraße 4/III München, Germany harald.weinfurter@physik.uni-muenchen.de Please view available titles in Springer Series in Optical Sciences on series homepage

3 Jesper Glückstad Darwin Palima Generalized Phase Contrast Applications in Optics and Photonics 123

4 Professor Jesper Glückstad, PhD, DSc DTU Fotonik, Department of Photonics Engineering Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Darwin Palima, Assistant Professor, PhD DTU Fotonik, Department of Photonics Engineering Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Programmable Phase Optics: Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands In association with Canopus Academic Publishing Limited, 15 Nelson Parade, Bedminster, Bristol, BS3 4HY, UK Springer Series in Optical Sciences ISSN e-issn ISBN e-isbn DOI / Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York LibraryofCongressControlNumber: Canopus Academic Publishing Limited No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (

5 Preface This book is based on the authors work for more than a decade, initiated by a generic patent application for the generalized phase contrast (GPC) method in the midnineties. In short, the GPC invention propounds a generalization of Nobel Laureate Fritz Zernike s original phase contrast method not only in terms of a wider domain of theoretical operation but, in particular, also opening up new and exciting applications beyond optical microscopy. After the issuing of this key patent for GPC, a number of associated application patents have been filed, in addition to more than 150 papers and conference presentations on the theoretical and experimental aspects of GPC and its applications. A culmination came in early 2005 when one of the authors (J. Glückstad) defended his dissertation on the GPC method, for which he obtained a higher doctorate degree (Doctor of Science) from the Technical University of Denmark. It was at this point that the idea was originally fostered to write a monograph and explain to a wider audience about GPC and its applications in contemporary optics and photonics. The present book is strongly supported by a rich portfolio of research work, both of theoretical and experimental nature, which have been undertaken in collaboration with a number of scientists around the world whom we would like to explicitly acknowledge for their key contributions: L. Lading, H. Toyoda, T. Hara, Y. Suzuki, N. Yoshida, P. C. Mogensen, R. L. Eriksen, V. R. Daria, S. Sinzinger, P. J. Rodrigo, C. A. Alonzo, N. Arneborg, I. Perch-Nielsen, P. Bøggild, J. Jahns, P. Ormos and L. Kelemen. Copenhagen, Denmark, 1 July 2009 Jesper Glückstad Darwin Palima With the phase-contrast method still in the first somewhat primitive stage, I went in to the Zeiss Works in Jena to demonstrate. It was not received with such enthusiasm as I had expected. Worst of all was one of the oldest scientific associates, who said: If this had any practical value, we would ourselves have invented it long ago. Long ago, indeed! Fritz Zernike

6 Contents 1 Introduction The Generalized Phase Contrast Method From Phase Visualization to Wavefront Engineering GPC an Enabling Technology GPC as Information Processor... 5 References Generalized Phase Contrast Zernike Phase Contrast Towards a Generalized Phase Contrast Method... 9 References Foundation of Generalized Phase Contrast: Mathematical Analysis of Common-Path Interferometers Common-Path Interferometer: a Generic Phase Contrast Optical System Field Distribution at the Image Plane of a CPI Assumption on the Phase Object s Spatial Frequency Components The SRW Generating Function The Combined Filter Parameter Summary and Links...24 References Phasor Chart for r CPI-Analysis Analysis Input Phase to Output Intensity Mapping Modified Phasor Chart Based on Complex Filter Parameter...30

7 viii Contents 4.3 Summary and Links...32 References Wavefront Sensing and Analysis Using GPC GPC Mapping for Wavefront Measurement Optimal Unambiguous Intensity-to-Phase Mapping Optimising the Linearity of the Intensity-to-Phase Mapping Generalising Henning s Phase Contrast Method Linear Phase-to-Intensity Mapping over the Entire Phase Unity Circle Accurate Quantitative Phase Imaging Using Generalized Phase Contrast The Synthetic Reference Wave in Quantitative Phase Microscopy Limitations of the Plane Wave Model of the SRW GPC-Based Phase-Shifting Interferometry Robustness of the GPC Model of the SRW GPC-Based Quantitative Phase Imaging Summary and Links...58 References GPC-Based Wavefront Engineering GPC Framework for Light Synthesis Optimizing Light Efficiency Dark Background Condition for a Lossless Filter Optimal Filter Phase Shift Optimal Input Phase Encoding Phase Encoding for Binary Output Intensity Patterns Ternary Input Phase Encoding Binary Input Phase Encoding Generalized Optimization for Light Synthesis Dealing with SRW Inhomogeneity Filter Aperture Correction Input Phase Encoding Compensation Input Amplitude Profile Compensation Generalized Phase Contrast with Rectangular Apertures Phase-to-Intensity Mapping Approximating the Reference Wave Projection Design Illustration Comparison of Generalized Phase Contrast and Computer- Generated Holography for Laser Image Projection Pattern Projection and Information Theory Performance Benchmarks...88

8 Contents ix Practical SLM Devices: Performance Constraints Final Remarks Wavelength Dependence of GPC-Based Pattern Projection Summary and Links References Shaping Light by Generalized Phase Contrast Binary Phase Modulation for Efficient Binary Projection Experimental Demonstration Ternary-Phase Modulation for Binary Array Illumination Ternary-Phase Encoding Experimental Results Dynamically Reconfigurable Optical Lattices Dynamic Optical Lattice Generation Dynamic Optical Obstacle Arrays Photon-Efficient Grey-Level Image Projection Matching the Phase-to-Intensity Mapping Scheme to Device Constraints Efficient Experimental Image Projection Using Practical Device Constraints Photon-Efficient Grey-Level Image Projection with Next- Generation Devices Reshaping Gaussian Laser Beams Patterning Gaussian Beams with GPC as Phase-Only Aperture Homogenizing the Output Intensity Gaussian-to-Flattop Conversion Achromatic Spatial Light Shaping and Image Projection Summary and Links References GPC-Based Programmable Optical Micromanipulation Multiple-Beam GPC-Trapping for Two-Dimensional Manipulation of Particles with Various Properties Probing Growth Dynamics in Microbial Cultures of Mixed Yeast Species Using GPC-Based Optical Micromanipulation Three-Dimensional Trapping and Manipulation in a GPC System Real-Time Autonomous 3D Control of Multiple Particles with Enhanced GPC Optical Micromanipulation System GPC-Based Optical Micromanipulation of Particles in Three Dimensions with Simultaneous Imaging in Two Orthogonal Planes

9 x Contents 8.6 All-GPC Scheme for Three-Dimensional Multi-Particle Manipulation Using a Single Spatial Light Modulator GPC system with Two Parallel Input Beams Single-SLM Full-GPC Optical Trapping System GPC-Based Optical Actuation of Microfabricated Tools Design and Fabrication of Micromachine Elements Actuation of Microtools by Multiple Counterpropagating- Beam Traps Autonomous Cell Handling by GPC in a Microfluidic Flow Experimental Setup Experimental Demonstration Autonomous Assembly of Micropuzzles Using GPC Design and Fabrication of Micropuzzle Pieces Optical Assembly of Micropuzzle Pieces Optical Forces in Three-Dimensional GPC-Trapping Optical Forces on a Particle Illuminated by Counterpropagating Beams Top-Hat Field Distribution and Propagation Numerical Calculation of Force Curves Summary and Links References Alternative GPC Schemes GPC Using a Light-Induced Spatial Phase Filter Self-Induced PCF on a Kerr Medium Kerr Medium with Saturable Nonlinearity Experimental Demonstration GPC Using a Variable Liquid-Crystal Filter Experimental Demonstration Multibeam-Illuminated GPC With a Plurality of Phase Filtering Regions Miniaturized GPC Implementation via Planar Integrated Micro-Optics Experimental Demonstration GPC in Combination with Matched Filtering The mgpc Method: Incorporating Optical Correlation into a GPC Filter Optimizing the mgpc Method Summary and Links References

10 Contents xi 10 Reversal of the GPC Method Amplitude Modulated Input in a Common-Path Interferometer CPI Optimization for the Reverse Phase Contrast Method Experimental Demonstration of Reverse Phase Contrast Experimental Setup Matching the Filter Size to the Input Aperture RPC-Based Phase Modulation Using a Fixed Amplitude Mask RPC-Based Phase Modulation Using an SLM as Dynamic Amplitude Mask Reverse Phase Contrast Implemented on a High-Speed DMD Setup Results and Discussion Summary and Links References Optical Encryption and Decryption Phase-Only Optical Cryptography Miniaturization of the GPC Method via Planar Integrated Micro-Optics Miniaturized GPC Method for Phase-Only Optical Decryption Phase Decryption in a Macro-Optical GPC Envisioning a Fully Integrated Miniaturized System Decrypting Binary Phase Patterns by Amplitude Principles and Experimental Considerations Numerical simulations Summary and Links References Concluding Remarks and Outlook Formulating Generalized Phase Contrast in a Common-Path Interferometer Sensing and Visualization of Unknown Optical Phase Synthesizing Customized Intensity Landscapes Projecting Dynamic Light for Programmable Optical Trapping and Micromanipulation Exploring Alternative Implementations Creating Customized Phase Landscapes: Reversed Phase Contrast Effect Utilizing GPC and RPC in Optical Cryptography Gazing at the Horizon Through a Wider Window

11 xii Contents Appendix: Jones Calculus in Phase-Only Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulators A.1 Spatial Phase Modulation A.2 Spatial Polarization Modulation A.3 Spatial Polarization Modulation with Arbitrary Axis Reference Index...311