Serial ruptures of the San Andreas fault, Carrizo Plain, California, revealed by three-dimensional excavations

Transcription

1 Serial ruptures of the San Andreas fault, Carrizo Plain, California, revealed by three-dimensional excavations Jing Liu-Zeng, Yann Klinger, Kerry Sieh, Charles Rubin, Gordon Seitz To cite this version: Jing Liu-Zeng, Yann Klinger, Kerry Sieh, Charles Rubin, Gordon Seitz. Serial ruptures of the San Andreas fault, Carrizo Plain, California, revealed by three-dimensional excavations. Journal of Geophysical Research. Oceans, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, < /2004JB003601>. <insu > HAL Id: insu Submitted on 5 Feb 2016 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

2 JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 111,, doi: /2004jb003601, 2006 Serial ruptures of the San Andreas fault, Carrizo Plain, California, revealed by three-dimensional excavations Jing Liu-Zeng, 1,2,3 Yann Klinger, 1,2 Kerry Sieh, 1 Charles Rubin, 4 and Gordon Seitz, 5 Received 27 December 2004; revised 15 August 2005; accepted 21 September 2005; published 28 February [1] It is poorly known if fault slip repeats regularly through many earthquake cycles. Well-documented measurements of successive slips rarely span more than three earthquake cycles. In this paper, we present evidence of six sequential offsets across the San Andreas fault at a site in the Carrizo Plain, using stream channels as piercing lines. We opened a latticework of trenches across the offset channels on both sides of the fault to expose their subsurface stratigraphy. We can correlate the channels across the fault on the basis of their elevations, shapes, stratigraphy, and ages. The three-dimensional excavations allow us to locate accurately the offset channel pairs and to determine the amounts of motion for each pair. We find that the dextral slips associated with the six events in the last millennium are, from oldest to youngest, 5.4 ± 0.6, 8.0 ± 0.5, 1.4 ± 0.5, 5.2 ± 0.6, 7.6 ± 0.4 and 7.9 ± 0.1 m. In this series, three and possibly four of the six offset values are between 7 and 8 m. The common occurrence of 7 8 m offsets suggests remarkably regular, but not strictly uniform, slip behavior. Age constraints for these events at our site, combined with previous paleoseismic investigations within a few kilometers, allow a construction of offset history and a preliminary evaluation of slip- and timepredictable models. The average slip rate over the span of the past five events (between A.D and A.D ) has been 34 mm/yr, not resolvably different from the previously determined late Holocene slip rate and the modern geodetic strain accumulation rate. We find that the slip-predictable model is a better fit than the timepredictable model. In general, earthquake slip is positively correlated with the time interval preceding the event. Smaller offsets coincide with shorter prior intervals and larger offset with longer prior intervals. Citation: Liu-Zeng, J., Y. Klinger, K. Sieh, C. Rubin, and G. Seitz (2006), Serial ruptures of the San Andreas fault, Carrizo Plain, California, revealed by three-dimensional excavations, J. Geophys. Res., 111,, doi: /2004jb Introduction [2] Forecast of large earthquakes might be possible if theorists could constrain the range of plausible physical models with precise reconstructions of prior rupture histories, that is, the variations in timing and rupture magnitude of past events. Our understanding of the nature of earthquake repetition is hampered by a lack of long records of relevant high-quality data bearing on the behavior of past large ruptures. A myriad of models have been proposed to describe earthquake recurrence. Some models predict highly regular sequences [e.g., Reid, 1910; Schwartz and 1 Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA. 2 Laboratoire de Tectonique, Institut de Physique du Globe Paris, Paris, France. 3 Now at the Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 4 Department of Geological Sciences, Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington, USA. 5 Department of Geological Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA. Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union /06/2004JB003601$09.00 Coppersmith, 1984; Sieh, 1981, 1996; Stuart, 1986; Tse and Rice, 1986; Ward and Goes, 1993; Rice, 1993; Rice and Ben-Zion, 1996; Lapusta et al., 2000], whereas others predict highly irregular behavior [e.g., Bak and Tang, 1989; Carlson and Langer, 1989; Ito and Matsuzaki, 1990; Huang et al., 1992; Shaw, 1995; Ben-Zion, 1996; Cochard and Madariaga, 1996; Ward, 1997; Lyakhovsky et al., 2001; Shaw and Rice, 2000]. The lack of determinative data makes it difficult to narrow down the list of feasible models. [3] Our limited understanding of earthquake recurrence also influences the practice of seismic hazard analysis. The characteristic earthquake model was considered such a simple yet reasonable idealization that it was extensively applied in seismic hazard assessment [e.g., Working Group of California Earthquake Probabilities, 1988, 1995]. However, one should be aware of our reliance on tenuous assumptions of source recurrence in these approaches. For example, it was believed that seismicity on a fault could be represented realistically by a repeating characteristic rupture and that slip patterns along large historical ruptures reflect along-strike differences in fault friction [e.g., Stuart, 1986; Rundle, 1988; Ward and Goes, 1993]. In reality, we have only very sparse data to 1of33

3 Figure 1. Location of the Wallace Creek trench site. (a) Active faults in California, with 1857 earthquake rupture on the San Andreas fault highlighted in red. Abbreviations of some paleoseismic investigation sites along the San Andreas fault: LY, Las Yeguas; WC, Wallace Creek; FM, Frasier Mountain; CP, Pallett Creek; W, Wrightwood. Abbreviations of faults: GF, Garlock fault; SMF, Sierra Madre fault; CF, Sierra Madre-Cucamonga fault; SJF, San Jacinto fault and EF, Elsinore fault. (b) Oblique aerial photo of the San Andreas fault near the Wallace Creek site showing locations of two previous investigations. Photo by T. Rockwell. (c) Close-up aerial oblique photo of the trench site. Thin dashed lines indicate geomorphic stream channels. Polygons in yellow denote locations of excavation volumes. A narrow excavation on the upstream side is placed in front of a secondary channel. The exposures in this trench show that the incision is minor and not enough to be a source channel. support this idea [Lindvall et al., 1989; Sharp et al., 1982]. [4] Paleoseismology has contributed to understanding serial fault ruptures by documenting the history of earthquakes at specific locations along faults worldwide [e.g., McCalpin, 1996; Yeats et al., 1997]. However, most paleoseismic investigations uncovered only the times of paleoearthquakes. Well-documented examples of slip measurements for these earthquakes are still rare. Highquality data rarely span more than two earthquake cycles [Sieh, 1996, and references therein]. Longer records of paleoearthquake slips [e.g., Schwartz and Coppersmith, 1984; Sieh, 1984; Pantosti et al., 1996; Ran et al., 1997; Weldon et al., 2002] are, however, inaccurate or mostly based on indirect evidence; for example, the similar displacement of paleoseismic events on the Wasatch fault was inferred from the heights of colluvial wedges caused by these events. [5] Thus our goal in this study is to document details of several sequential offsets from a single site on the Carrizo section of the San Andreas fault (Figure 1). We have recently summarized this work [Liu et al., 2004]. Here we present a more complete documentation of our results, including efforts to date the offsets and speculate about the slip history. At the site, a feeder channel cuts a late Pleistocene alluvial fan on the upstream side of the fault. On the downstream side, several small channels have been offset dextrally from the feeder channel and sequentially abandoned. We have conducted three-dimensional excavations across these channels. Using offset channels as piercing lines, we have recovered an accurate record of offsets for six sequential ruptures. Sparse reliable radiometric dates 2of33

4 Figure 2. Map of excavations at the site. (a) Map of the 11 separate volumes that were excavated. The seven that exposed channels are labeled up or dn, depending on their location upstream or downstream from the fault. The suffixes ne and se indicate the direction of serial cuts within the excavation. (b) An example of the arrangement of mapped exposures within the excavated volumes. (c) Photo showing the procedure that we use channel stratigraphy to check for evidence of a fault between two consecutive cuts. do not allow us to determine accurately their dates from this site alone. However, previous paleoseismic studies at sites within several kilometers, the Phelan Creeks and the Bidart fan sites, have yielded tighter constraints on the occurrence times, but not the offsets of paleoruptures (Figure 1b) [Prentice and Sieh, 1989; Grant and Sieh, 1994; Sims, 1994; J. D. Sims et al., unpublished manuscript, 1994]. A combination of these studies improves the slip time sequence. [6] We organize the paper into 10 sections: Sections 1, 2, and 3 set forth the nature of the study, the background, previous work and methodology. Section 4 is a lengthy detailed description of the stratigraphy and morphology of channels exposed in the excavations. Section 5 gives the evidence for correlation of 6 upstream and downstream pairs of offset channels. In section 6 we calculate the offset values. In section 7 we derive the rupture sequence and address the question of whether each offset is a single rupture event. Section 8 provides radiocarbon constraints on the offset events. Then, in section 9 we proceed to create an offset history on the basis of the sequence of offsets and our best estimates of the dates of events. Finally, in section 10 we discuss the implications of the sequence of offsets at the site. We suggest that the casual readers of this paper focus their attention on the figures in the sections 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8, and focus on sections 5, 6, 9, and Site Description [7] The Carrizo Plain is an arid to semiarid intermontane closed basin about 80 km northeast of the California coastline. Ephemeral streams, dry except during local cloudbursts in the dry season or during large Pacific storms in the wetter winter months, incise the flanks the Temblor Range on the northeast. In the vicinity of Wallace Creek (Figure 1b), the main surface is an apron of late Pleistocene alluvial fans derived principally from Miocene marine deposits of the Temblor Range [Dibblee, 1973]. The fans were aggrading through the period from 33 ka to at least 19 ka [Sieh and Jahns, 1984]. This surface became inactive about 13,250 years B.P. Entrenchment of the late Pleistocene surface by active streams has continued throughout the Holocene epoch. At Wallace Creek the vertical component of motion on the San Andreas fault has been northeast side up, resulting in the present south facing 8- to 9-m-high scarp. This section of the San Andreas fault ruptured during the latest large earthquake in 1857 with several meters of right-lateral offset [Agnew and Sieh, 1978; Sieh, 1978]. [8] The Carrizo section of the San Andreas fault is an ideal place to determine whether or not a fault segment can experience similar amounts of slip through many earthquake cycles. First of all, along much of this segment the fault trace is geometrically simple and well expressed. Secondly, beheaded channels indicating various amounts of offset are common. Thirdly, the potential to discriminate individual offsets has been known [Wallace, 1968; Sieh, 1978; Sieh and Jahns, 1984]. [9] We refer to our excavation site as the Wallace Creek paleoseismic site, because it is just a few hundred meters southeast of Wallace Creek (Figure 1b), where Sieh and Jahns [1984] made the first determination of a slip rate 3 of 33

5 Figure 3. Lithologic and other symbols used in documenting the exposures. Modified from Grant and Sieh [1994]. along the San Andreas fault, 34 mm/yr. The site is at the outlet of one of several small gullies that cut the late Pleistocene alluvial fan but extend only a hundred meters or so upstream. The particular small drainage that we chose was first studied by Wallace [1968] and then by Sieh [1978] (site 25, ). Sieh [1978] measured the offsets of the beheaded channels to be 8.7 ± 1.4 m, 24.1 ± 1.4 m, 32.0 ± 2.0 m and 56.4 ± 2.9 m, from the youngest to the oldest. [10] However, these purely geomorphic estimations of channel offsets are plagued with ambiguities. First, colluviation at the base of the scarp has buried these small downstream gullies partially, so their precise geometry near the fault is obscure. Thus geomorphic measurements of offsets are imprecise. Another source of uncertainty in the interpretation of geomorphic measurements is the possibility of channel piracy. Strike-slip motion along a fault can bring a downstream channel, whose source is far away, into alignment with a different upstream channel [Wallace, 1968; Gaudemer et al., 1989; Huang, 1993; Schumm et al., 2000]. If unrecognized, such piracy can lead to mismatching of offset channels and incorrect measurements of offset. 3. Methods [11] Guided by the geomorphic observations, we conducted three-dimensional excavations on either side of the San Andreas fault and matched channels based on the similarity in subsurface channel morphology and stratigraphy. Basically, we have explored 11 volumes: three on the upstream side of the fault, and eight on the downstream side (Figure 2a). The excavated volumes downstream from the fault exposed relationships along a 50-m length parallel to the fault and northwest of the source channel. They were placed to reveal all downstream channel segments within the 50-m fault-parallel length of the channel outlet. [12] Most of the volumes were excavated progressively. That is, we began by excavating a narrow trench by hand, 4 5 m from and parallel to the fault, astride a gully. After mapping both walls of these initial trenches, we cut into the wall closest to the fault, creating another exposure closer to the fault. After mapping this new face, we once again cut a new exposure, still closer to the fault. Subsequent faces were cut closer and closer to the fault by increments of 50 to 60 cm. Near the fault, the increments were commonly only about 20 cm (Figure 2b). In places where channels flowed nearly parallel to the fault zone, trench cuts would be oriented fault-normal. Between parallel cuts near the fault zone, we would cut a 50-cm-wide notch and use channel stratigraphy to check for faults between the faces (Figure 2c). In this manner, we carefully followed each potential piercing line into the fault zone. Although making series of successive cuts was time consuming, it greatly reduced the uncertainty in interpreting channel stratigraphy. Contacts that were ambiguous in one wall would often be clear in the next. [13] Our choice of 60- to 20-cm increments represented a compromise between the demands of rigor and logistics. These increments were small enough to reveal the continuation of channel stratigraphy between cuts. Using smaller increment would undoubtedly have revealed more detail in channel variation, but would also have increased the time and effort required. Instead of mapping cuts at smaller increments, we chose to inspect important channel contacts (e.g., channel thalwegs and sharp edges) as we dug from one cut to the next. [14] The fault-parallel orientation of progressive cuts is optimal for reconstruction of channel stratigraphy and offset markers. Yet, fault-perpendicular cuts are optimal for mapping the geometry of the fault zone. Although most of our excavations were fault-parallel, auxiliary fault-perpendicular trenches in areas away from the channels revealed the location of important faults. [15] The name of each exposure reflects the name of the volume it belonged to, when in the sequence it was cut, and the direction of cutting. For example, exposure dn4-ne05 was the fifth cut within downstream volume 4, and it was on the northeastern wall of the volume. Exposures were cleaned, surveyed with a Total Station, using the same reference frame, and mapped at 1:15 scale (except 1:20 scale for trench dn1). Symbols used in mapping appear in Figure 3. Strata within the channels were correlated from one exposure to the next based on lithologic similarity, stratigraphic position and elevation of the upper and lower contacts. We later reconstructed the three-dimensional geometry of channels and faults from dense survey data. High-precision channel geometry and location thus gave greatly refined slip measurements. 4. Channel Stratigraphy and Morphology [16] We assign the downstream channels letter names (from a to l, Figure 4), where a is closest to the mouth of source channel and l is farthest. Upstream channels are named numerically from 1 to 9, from youngest to oldest. 4of33

6 Figure 4. Summary of the results of excavations of all channels. (f) Locations of the channels and excavated volumes in map view. Downstream channels are assigned letters, from a to l, southeast to northwest. Upstream channels are numbered from 1 to 9, from youngest to oldest. Major fault strands F1 through F6 are correlated from exposure to exposure on the basis of the projection of strikes, relative position, and the spacing between them. Gray polygons indicate the perimeters of excavated volumes. (a) (e) Detailed maps of the deepest thalwegs of downstream channels and their meanders. The cross sections appear on the plan view map to illustrate the change in channel shape that occurs along the stream profile. The viewing direction in each cross section is toward upstream, and the deepest thalweg of the channel in each exposure appears as a dot in its correct geographic location. (g) Thalwegs of upstream channels in map view. Symbols connected with dashed lines indicate the position of the thalwegs in each mapped exposure. Simplified cross sections of downstream channels from each mapped exposure show the variability in channel shape and stratigraphy. Numbers at the base of Figure 4g indicate the horizontal offsets of channels 1 through 6 across fault F1 and F2. The shading between F1 and F2 indicates that F2 is a shallow branch of F1. The stratigraphic sequence of the channels generally revealed a complex history of cuts and fills. Major units were defined by their textures and the prominence of their lower contacts, which were generally major erosional surfaces. Each major unit contained multiple subunits. Because of limited space, we have put the maps and descriptions of channel stratigraphy of most channels as in the auxiliary material 1 (Figures S1 S15). 1 Auxiliary material is available at ftp://ftp.agu.org/apend/jb/ 2004JB Downstream Channels [17] The substrate underlying all the downstream channels was a massive indurated and matrix-supported pebbly sand and silt, interbedded with sorted gravelly and sandy lenses. A more than 1-m-thick pedogenic carbonate horizon (B k ) developed within this unit and had penetrated into the matrix, consistent with its late Pleistocene age [Sieh and Jahns, 1984]. [18] The distinction between the late Pleistocene fan and recent channel deposits manifests itself in three ways: 5of33

7 Figure 4. (continued) [19] 1. The colors of the two units differ. The channel deposits are usually darker than the older underlying unit. [20] 2. The edges of the channels, especially in the lower part, are generally clear. However, finding the channel walls was sometimes tricky, especially in the upper part of the channel, where deposits filling the channel were commonly colluvium, derived from collapse of the upper channel wall and thus compositionally similar to the substrate material. [21] 3. Lenses of well-sorted sand and gravel within the younger channels are traceable from cut to cut. These wellsorted sand and gravel layers within the channels, when they can be traced over several meters in the channels, provided good markers for stratigraphic correlation from cut to cut in each trench Channel a [22] Channel a was the southernmost channel on the downstream side of the fault (Figure 4f). In map view (Figure 4a), the deepest thalweg of channel a curved right as one views it looking toward the fault. It had a prominent right step in the middle of its course, between exposure ne04 and ne05. This step was demonstrably not an offset across a minor fault. A large cobble, 25 cm long and 3 10 cm thick, blocked the channel in exposure ne04 (Figure S2). The thalweg skirted the blockage on the left. Figure 4a also shows the simplified cross-sectional outlines of channel a derived from our mapping of sequential channel walls. Although channel a cut into the landscape only about 0.5 m, its deepest thalweg (the deepest part of the channel) was 1.5 m or so deeper Channel b [23] Channel b appeared in the excavation volume 5 6 m northwest of channel a (Figure 4f). Any geomorphic evidence for this channel was lost following the incision of channel a. Its presence was only hinted at by the asymmetry of the banks of channel a near the fault, and the slight bending of a couple of topographic contour lines near the fault. [24] Channel b was distinctly different than channel a. In all exposures, it was narrow, with a bottleneck in the channel walls some centimeters up from the thalweg (Figure 4b). The thalweg of channel b ran straight into the fault. Its lack of curvature is additional evidence that the bend in younger channel a was not tectonic in origin. Secondary fault F5 cut through exposure ne06 (Figure 4b). In this exposure, the fault dipped into the exposure such that the channel was missing above the fault. This secondary 6of33

8 Figure 4. fault did not disrupt younger channel a and thus was active only between filling of channel b and cutting of channel a Channels c and d [25] We found a set of two channels, c and d, 5 to 11 m northwest of channel b (Figures 4c and 4f). In plan view, channel d was nearly perpendicular to and ran straight into fault F5. Channel d was 1 to 1.2 m deep and generally W-shaped, which was the result of two major phases of scour and fill (Figure 5). The second major down-cutting event widened channel d, mostly by scouring the southern bank. This cutting extended as deep as the first incision, thus forming a second thalweg less than a meter southeast of the first. [26] Channel c was more complicated. It consisted of two segments, c1 and c2, on either side of fault F5. In plan view, channel c1 diverged from the path of channel d in a rightlateral sense within a meter of the fault (Figure 4c). In cross sections, channel c1 cut the channel d in the upper right corner. Best exposed in ne08, channel c1 consisted of a semicircular erosion surface filled with gravel and sand (labeled c-10 in Figure 5). The deposits within the channel were thickest near the fault and diminished quickly to zero farther downstream (Figure 4c). Channel c2, was a 1.5-m-long channel segment within in the fault zone and to the southeast of c1. It had a cylindrical shape and was about cm wide in cross sections perpendicular to the fault zone (e.g., dn4-se04; Figure 6). The bottom 30 cm of the (continued) channel was covered with loose, massive clast-supported pebbly sand and granules. [27] Channel c1 correlates with channel c2. Together, they constituted a single right-deflecting channel that postdated channel d. Our correlation is based on their lithologic similarity, their stratigraphic position and the similar elevations of their upper and lower contacts. Other evidence includes (1) the arrangement of and imbrications in the pebbly gravels in c1 were consistent with a right-curving channel course (Figure 5), as indicated by its thalweg (Figure 4c); and (2) it was consistent with the asymmetric widening of channel d on the right. [28] Could the fault-bounded segment c2 be a channel fragment that was much older than c1 and just lodged within the fault zone near channel c1? In other words, are we correlating channel segments of different ages? We think this possibility is very remote. First, the outline of the channel and the deposits within it were still coherent, which suggests a relatively young age. Second, as will be shown later, the shapes and deposits of older channels to the northwest do not make them better candidates than c1 to be the downstream correlative of c2. In support of this correlation, it is worth reiterating that channel c merged with d right after it departed the fault zone. This proximity of the right deflection of channel c to the fault zone suggests that when channel c was incised, channel d was nearly connected with its former upstream segment. Perhaps, the 7of33

9 Figure 4. (continued) 8 of 33

10 Figure 6. Map of exposure dn4-se04 shows the stratigraphy in channel c2. Figure 4. (continued) rupture that immediately postdated formation of channel d offset the channel only a small amount, enabling a new channel connection to form between the upstream and downstream channels. If, for example, the offset were merely half the width of the channel, it would be relatively easy for water in the upstream channel find its way into the slightly offset downstream channel and to erode that portion of the fault zone between the channels. However, if the offset of channel d was much larger than the width of the channel, the connection would be more difficult to reestablish Channels e, f, g, and h [29] The excavated volume 30 to 36 m northwest of the upstream source channel contained four channels, e, f, g and h, that fanned out upstream toward the fault zone (Figure 4f). Channels f and g trended roughly at right angles to the fault, whereas channels e and h merged from the right and left, respectively (Figure 4d). All four channels merged into a single channel 6 to 7 m downstream from the fault. [30] Channel f was the deepest and widest of the four (Figure 4d). Its cross-sectional shape was roughly U-shaped. Locally, it had a secondary thalweg to the southeast, most likely the remnant of an earlier phase of downcutting. Channel h, another deep channel, had variable cross-sectional shape and stratigraphy. The cross-sectional shape of channel h changed dramatically from cut to cut. Note that in exposure ne10, immediately adjacent to the principal fault (F5), channel h had a steep northern bank and reclining southern bank. The asymmetry in channel shape suggests that channel h made a sharp turn to the southwest as it departed the fault zone. Such a turn would be consistent with the trace of its thalweg indicated by the plot of thalwegs in cuts ne06 through ne09 in Figure 4d. Channel g was a shallow, less conspicuous channel between channels f and h. In cross section, it was narrow and contained channel sand and gravel of varying thickness at near its base. Channel e was also shallow. Channel e was still recognizable in exposure ne02, but it disappeared downstream, in ne01 and ne00. Channel e could not be traced with confidence upstream of ne07, closer than 2 to 3 m of the fault zone. One possibility is that bioturbation had obliterated the trace of channel e near the fault. Although we cannot rule out this possibility, it seems unlikely as no other channels, including much older ones, had been completely erased by bioturbation. Another possibility is that the headward limit of channel e was near exposure ne07 and that the channel was formed by headward erosion and that the channel did not reach or cross the fault zone. The longitudinal profile of channel e supports this hypothesis (Figure 7). From exposures ne07 to ne06, the profile exhibited a sharp drop in elevation and the width of the channel narrows (Figure 4d). Thus ne07 might slice across the knickpoint of channel e. [31] Traces of thalwegs alone also suggested that channel f was the oldest of the four channels. Of the four channels, channel f occurred in the middle and perpendicular to the fault, flanked by channels h and e from left and right, respectively. Channels g and h were younger than f even though they appeared to be offset more than f from the source. The rationale behind the above speculation is that the upstream channels in this stretch of the San Andreas fault meet the fault almost orthogonally. This implies that downstream channels should also depart the fault perpendicularly, unless the microtopography near the fault (for example, an older downstream channel in close vicinity) favored a deflected channel course, e.g., channel h. Cross- Figure 5. Stratigraphic units of channels d and c1, illustrated using exposure dn4-ne08. 9of33

11 Figure 7. Longitudinal profile of the thalweg of channel e. The hollow in the profile just downstream from exposure ne07 suggests that channel e was eroding a plunge pool at this location and may not have eroded headward across the fault. If this is true, the channel cannot be used as an offset piercing line. cutting relationships provided information about the relative ages of the channels (see Figure S3). Channel f was older than channel h, which was in turn older than channel g. The age of channel e relative to the ages of channels g and h was indeterminate, because channel e did not have direct contact with channels g or h. This left us with this temporal ordering: f > h > g and f > e Channels i, j, k, and l [32] Another group of 4 channels existed farther northwest channel h (Figure 4f). An unnamed trench cut parallel to the fault confirmed that no channels existed downstream from the fault between this group of four channels and channel h. [33] Channel k was the largest and deepest channel in the volume and intersected the fault at nearly a right angle (Figures 4e and 4f). Channel l, another deep channel, exited the fault zone at an acute angle and snaked Figure 8. (a) Map and (b) simplified map of the wall of an excavation upstream from the fault show eight of the nine nested upstream channels. Suspended load silts (in yellow) testify to the temporary ponding of the drainages behind shutter ridges. Channel margins and names are in red. View is upstream. 10 of 33

12 Figure 9. Photograph of the suspended load lens in channel 1. Note that the lens has a gently curved top and deeply curved base and consists of multiple individual lenses. Each of the lenses is thickest in the middle and thins to feather edges on their margins. The lenses consist of fines deposited out of suspension in a muddy puddle just upstream from the fault and straddling the middle of the channel. The photo is flipped so that the viewing direction is upstream. downstream (Figure 4e). It had an irregular channel floor with multiple thalwegs, separated by lateral ridges. The configurations of channels k and l suggested that k was older than l. Channel k left the fault at nearly a right angle and continued downstream in a nearly straight path. Furthermore, the channel thalweg run immediately below the lowest point in the topographically visible channel (Figure 4f). Channel l, by contrast, flowed in the center of the topographic channel only in its lower reaches and entered the topographic channel from a position well up on the northwestern flank of the topographic channel. This suggests that it was diverted left-laterally into the channel. Thus channel geometries suggests that channel l postdated channel k. Our exposures of stratigraphic relationships confirmed this relationship. Figure 4e (also see Figure S4) shows that channel l truncated the northern bank of channel k in exposure ne08 and its thalweg a few meters farther downstream, between ne05 and ne04. Downstream from ne04, channel k was completely absent, having been completely obliterated by channel l. Thus channel k was reoccupied and erased by the younger channel l at this juncture. [34] Channel j intersected the fault zone at a 45 angle (Figure 4f). It flowed westward, away from the fault zone and merged with channel l about 7 m downstream. The channel was well expressed up to a few tens of centimeters from the fault, typically marked by a thin lens of sandy gravel. Farther downstream, channel j cut into the upper colluvial fill of channel k, and then it continued northwestward and merged with channel l. This correlation implies that channel j was younger than both channels k and l. Channel i lay just a meter or so south of and run almost parallel to channel j (Figure 4e). In the southernmost exposure of channel i (ne11), it was well defined as a 60-cm-wide lens of sand and fine gravel [Liu, 2003]. Further downstream, channel i was not visible, probably due to a lack of coarse fluvial channel fill. The relative age of channels i and j was indeterminate, because no direct crosscutting relationship was exposed Upstream Channels [35] The subsurface stratigraphy of the outlet of this drainage, just upstream from the San Andreas fault, differed greatly from that downstream. Whereas 12 downstream channels string out separately along a 55-m length of the fault, 9 upstream channels nested at the outlet of the drainage (Figure 4f) This nesting represents repeated cuts and fills in roughly the same place. [36] Figure 8 illustrates the basic nature of the nested upstream channels, using the map of exposure up-sw06, whose map position is indicated on Figure 4g. Eight of the 9 upstream channels were visible in this cut. The base of the deposit of these young channels was easy to recognize, because the underlying late Pleistocene deposits were massive and featureless fine-grained sand and silt with sparse gravel lenses. Bioturbation had homogenized the late Pleistocene substrate, and pedogenic carbonate precipitation had given it a pale hue and induration that contrasted sharply with the richer shades and looser consolidation of the recent channel deposits. In general, the boundaries of individual channels were also easy to recognize. [37] A prominent feature of many of the channels was a distinctive lens of well-sorted fine sand to silt. These beds are highlighted in yellow in Figure 8. Such beds were absent from any of the downstream channels. Figure 9 is a photograph of one of the lenses. The lenses consisted of fines deposited from suspension in a Figure 10. Stratigraphic units of channels 4, 5, and 6, illustrated using exposure up-sw06. The stratigraphy in channel 4 was grouped into five major units. 11 of 33

13 Figure 11. (a) Relative ages of upstream and downstream channels. The sequence of the upstream channels is based on crosscutting relationships. Ambiguities appear as bifurcations. On the downstream side, age is assumed to increase with the distance from the upstream trench, with a couple of exceptions that are constrained by stratigraphic relationships. (b) Correlation of upstream and downstream channels. Solid lines designate confident correlations. Dashed lines indicate uncertainty. muddy puddle just upstream from the fault and straddling the middle of the channel. They appeared to be the result of blockage of the channel by a shutter ridge, emplaced by large dextral offset along the fault. Thus the silty lenses likely are direct evidence of occasional large ruptures of the fault. [38] Crosscutting relationships among the channels revealed the sequence of their formation, from 1 to 9, from the youngest to oldest. Some of these relationships were ambiguous in Figure 8. For instance, the relationship between channels 5 and 6 was ambiguous, because the two channels had no direct contact. In such cases, to determine relative ages used other evidence, which we discuss in the following sections Channels 1 and 2 [39] Channel 1 sat in the middle of the exposures and was 1.8 m deep (Figure 8). Channel 2 rested a meter or so southeast of channel 1. The principal characteristic of channel 2 was its narrowness. In many of the exposures, it was more than a meter deep but only ten or twenty centimeters wide. The channel geometry was complicated by a second, higher side channel, which merged with the main channel before the channel entered the fault zone. In plan view (Figure 4g), both channels intersected the fault zone at a high angle. They were completely cut off by F4. Crossing F4, we immediately ran into a wall of indurated pebbly sand and silt with a pedogenic carbonate horizon (B k ), similar to the substrate exposed in all downstream trenches Channels 3, 4, 5, and 6 [40] Channels 3, 4, 5, and 6 appeared in the northwestern part of the excavated upstream volume. All four were shallow channels at a depth of 1 to 1.2 m below the ground surface (Figures 8 and 10). [41] Channel 3 was unlike the other channels upstream from the fault, in that it did not exist upstream from the fault zone. It was only about a meter long, existed only within the fault zone and trended westward, rather than southwestward (Figure 4g). If it extended farther upstream, it had been eroded away by the younger channel 1. Channel 3 was demonstrably younger than channels 4, 5 and 6, because it was not offset by fault F3, and because it cut channels 4 and 6 in exposures up-sw08, up-sw09, and up-sw10 (Figure S8). Channel 4 had a W-shaped to nearly square-shaped cross section. It was due to two major phases of down-cutting that reached to similar depths (Figure 10). Channel 5 was a small channel whose upper section was eroded away by scouring of channel 4. It was narrow with a semicircular floor in most exposures. The preserved portion of channel 5 commonly contained two packets of fluvial sediments. In up-sw06 (Figure 10), the lower of the two beds was massive and coarser-grained, composed of pebbles in a matrix of granules to coarse sand. The upper bed was finer-grained, well-sorted coarse to medium sand. The sorting of both of these beds indicates they were fluvial deposits. Channel 6 was truncated by channel 4 on the northwest and by channel 1 on the southeast. Only the lowest 40 cm of the channel was preserved. The surviving portion of channel 6 was preserved best in exposure up-sw05 (Figure 10). There it was filled with two well-sorted fluvial beds separated by a thin layer of poorly sorted granule-rich silty sand. The lower fluvial layer consisted of loose pebbly granule-rich sand that fined upward slightly. The upper fluvial bed was coarser-grained, and it was deposited when the channel floor was flat and wider. [42] In plan view (Figure 4g), channels 4, 5, and 6 were subparallel and moderately sinuous. They were sharply offset a similar amount by fault F1. Also, they disappeared about 0.5 m north of the main strand F4. Because of this disappearance before the main fault strand, we suspected that they were offset by another strand, F3. In the reach between F1 and F3, channels 4 and 5 remained straight, whereas channel 6 flowed southward Channels 7, 8, and 9 [43] In a typical upstream cut, channels 7, 8, and 9 occupied the lower two thirds of the exposure (Figure 8). The stratigraphy of all three channels was easily correlated from exposure to exposure. Commonly in channels 7, 8 and 9, the silty fine sand lenses that represented the 12 of 33

14 Figure 12. Correlation of channel 1-a based on the similarity of stratigraphy and morphology in channels 1 and a. The eight vertical exposures show examples of the stratigraphic details within the channels. In map view, the dots indicate the geographic position of the deepest channel thalweg. Outlines of the channel shape and key internal contacts allow viewing the changes in the features along the trend of the channel. Note that the scale of the detailed cross sections is larger than that of the map. behind-the-shutter-ridge deposits were broader than in younger channels. Two suspended load beds that topped channel 7 were the widest. These beds overlaid the central channel and extended over prechannel 7 colluvial apron up to 5 m farther southeast. They might have also extended to the northwest, but if so, they had been removed by erosion during the creation of younger channels. The width and height of these beds suggested that the shutter ridge was high at the time of the deposition of the lenses. This could either be due to a considerable amount of vertical motion along the fault with downstream side moving up, or a juxtaposition of a broad topographic high downstream with channel 7, or a combination of the two. Detailed descriptions of the strata in channels 7, 8 and 9 were given by Liu [2003] (chapter 2, section ). [44] In plan view (Figure 4g), channels 7 and 9 met the fault zone at a high angle. The path of channel 8 is different. It veered sharply to the northwest, less than a meter upstream from the fault. It then flowed parallel to the fault 13 of 33

15 before being truncated by fault F1 at the northwestern edge of the excavated volume. 5. Channel Correlation 5.1. General Criteria for Channel Correlation [45] Multiple criteria were available for assessing correlations. Channel morphology and stratigraphy described in the section above are important information to match channels across the fault. In addition, three other considerations are important in making bona fide correlations. These are (1) the relative ages of channels on each side of the fault, (2) the similarity of the angles at which channels enter and exit the fault, and (3) age constraints from 14 C dates on charcoal extracted from channel strata. We use all five criteria in proposing correlations, below. [46] We begin by ordering the relative ages of channels on each side of the fault (Figure 11a). On the upstream side of the fault, the relative ages of many of the channels were clear from their crosscutting relationships. On the downstream side of the fault, the order of formation of the channels may be inferred from their distance from the nearest upstream channel and, where available, their crosscutting relationships. This criterion would, of course, be inappropriate for any channel that originated from upstream channels farther to the southeast. Furthermore, in matching of upstream and downstream channels, it is a necessary but not a sufficient condition that these relative ages be obeyed. Figure 11a illustrates a problem that arises immediately upon showing this hypothetical ordering of upstream and downstream channels: the downstream side had three more channels than the upstream side. Plausible explanations for this mismatch include that upstream channels had been obliterated by the incision of younger channels, or the downstream sequence contains channels that did not originate from the upstream channel, or both Channel 1-a [47] Three lines of evidence support the correlation of channel 1-a. First, channel 1 was the youngest channel on the upstream side, and channel a was the closest of all the downstream channels to the upstream channel. [48] Second, the shapes of the channels were similar. However, in considering the match of channel shapes across the fault, we must first evaluate how similar channel shapes need to be in order to be plausibly correlated across the fault. Generally, the variations in channel shape along profile were large. Only the principal characteristics of the channel continued from one exposure to the next. These were the basic V-shaped geometry of the channel and its depth. Second-order features, such as overhangs and other details of the channel walls, commonly were not continuous from exposure to exposure. Thus we should require only that the first-order characteristics correlate across the fault. The shapes of channels 1 and a were quite similar immediately upstream and downstream from the fault. In downstream exposure ne11, channel a was about 2 m deep and consisted of a deeper and a shallower channel, separated by an uneroded septum (Figure 12). The deeper channel had a nearly flat base, about 40 cm across. In upstream exposure sw13, channel 1 consisted of only one channel. However, like channel a it was about 2 m deep. Channel 1 was also asymmetric, with a steep and a shallow wall. This asymmetry would be very similar to the shape of channel a in exposure ne11, if one removed the septum between the principal and auxiliary channels in channel a. Without this septum channel a would have the same asymmetry as channel 1, steep on the northwest and shallow on the southeast. [49] A close inspection of the internal stratigraphy of the upstream and downstream channels supports this interpretation, because it shows that the smaller channel had longitudinal continuity. Close to the fault (in exposures sw10 through sw13), this side channel cut to the southeast and was plastered onto the southeast wall of the older main channel (Figure 12). Downstream from the fault, the channel remained on the southeast side of the main channel from exposures ne11 through ne09, and merged into the main channel in the rest downstream exposures. The correlation of channels 1 and a is supported by other details of the stratigraphy within the channels, as well. In particular, units 12 and 30 were comparable. Unit 12 was a diagnostic thin bed of laminated fine sand to silt that mantled the underlying basal deposits of both channels (compare exposures sw05 and ne08; Figure 12). It occurred in most upstream and downstream exposures. Unit 30 was the bed immediately predated the offset event. It consisted of two well-sorted fluvial layers, which formed an inversely graded sequence; the lower bed was finer grain sized than the upper one. It was continuously correlative among most exposures Channel 2-b [50] Of all our proposed correlations, the match of channels 2 and b is the strongest. The strength of the correlation lies in the similarity of their channel shapes and internal stratigraphy. Figure 13 displays the outlines of the two channels. The shapes of both channels b and 2 were about 1.5 m deep and very narrow. These two channels had, in fact, the lowest width-to-depth ratio of all the channels at the site. A side channel in the upper reach of the channel 2 merged with the main channel just upstream from the fault zone. Thus the shape of channel 2 in its lower reach was as simple as that of channel b. The strata within channels 2 and b also correlate exceptionally well. Both channels had four characteristic units, 10, 20, 30 and 40. Among these, unit 20 was the most diagnostic. This upward fining sequence comprised horizontally bedded thin layers of frameworksupported pebbles and sand. Within each layer, the sediments were remarkably well sorted. [51] Recall that from the crosscutting relationships in the upstream exposures, one cannot determine whether channel 2 was older or younger than channel 3 (Figure 11a). From the correlation between downstream channel b and channel 2, we can now say that, in fact, channel 2 was younger than channel Channels 3-c and 4-d [52] On the basis of crosscutting relationships and the match of channel 2-b, channels 3 and 4 were the third and fourth oldest channels upstream from the fault. Similarly, channels c and d were the third and fourth oldest channels downstream from the fault. 14 of 33

16 Figure 13. Correlation of channels 2 and b. The unusual narrowness of channels 2 and b and the similarity of their internal stratigraphy provide definitive evidence for their correlation. The dotted portion of the fault indicates much of the fault length between the upstream and downstream segments was removed to enable presentation of the comparison on a single page. Note the different scales for map and cross sections. [53] The similarity of channels 4 and d strongly suggests that they are correlative (Figure 14). The morphologic features common to both channels include their W-shaped channel profile, their large width/depth ratio, their 1.2-m depth beneath the surface near the fault zone, and the fact that they both approached the fault at nearly right angles. Furthermore, both upstream and downstream channels experienced two cut-and-fill episodes. On both sides of the fault, the second down-cutting reached as deep as the first phase and widened the channels by scouring the 15 of 33

17 Figure 14. Map and cross sections of channels 4 and d illustrating the basis for correlation of these two channels. The correlation is strongly suggested by the W-shaped channel profiles of both upstream and downstream segments and the similarity of their stratigraphic sequences. This match is also consistent with the match of the deflected channels 3 and c. southeastern bank. The deposits within channels 4 and d are also similar. Sediment within both channels was predominately massive, poorly sorted sandy, pebbly debris. The only fluvial units within this colluvial debris were thin basal wisps of granule- and pebble-dominated fluvial deposits above each of the basal channel scours. [54] Having established a likely correlation between channels 4 and d, we can now consider plausible upstream correlations of channel c. Channel c consisted of two parts (section 4.1.3) Channel c1 was superimposed on channel d downstream from the fault zone but diverged eastward away from channel d near the fault (Figure 14). Channel c2 was within and parallel to the fault zone, just a few meters to the southeast. The salient question, now, is whether channel c2 is correlative with upstream channel 3. The stratigraphic position of channel 3 is proper for such a correlation, since it was demonstrably younger than channel 4 (section 4.2.2). Secondly, the fact that both channel c2 and channel 3 ran nearly parallel to the fault and within the fault zone also supports the correlation. In addition, channels 3 and c2 had similar shapes; both had a clear, circular channel profile. Strata within both channels varied greatly along profile, so we cannot martial this as strong evidence for correlation. Nonetheless, in both 16 of 33

18 Figure 15. Summary of evidence for the correlation of channels 5 and g. Their size and stratigraphy are similar. The similar ages of two radiocarbon samples from the two channels also support the correlation. Open symbols for channel thalwegs indicate that the locations of the channel at these exposures are estimated. In particular, in exposures ne09 and ne10, the channel did not have any distinctive well-sorted coarse-grained layers and was barely recognizable by slight color contrast between channel-filling colluvium and bioturbated alluvium. Hence the positions of channel g in these two exposures were conjectural. channels the thickness of the strata was about 30 cm in exposures near the fault Channel 5-g [55] The next correlation of upstream and downstream channels is more difficult to make, because of ambiguities in the relative ages of channels both upstream and downstream from the fault. Upstream channels 5 and 6 antedated channel 4, but there were no crosscutting relationships to tell which was the younger of the two. Downstream channels e, f, g, and h were nested together (Figure 4d), with a temporal ordering of f > h > g and f > e. Channel e probably did not reach the fault, so we would not expect to be able to find a match for it across the fault. Even if channel e did reach the fault, the angle it left the fault zone is not compatible with either channel 5 or channel 6. [56] The best match is between channel g and channel 5 (Figure 15). The basis for this proposed match is channel 17 of 33

19 Figure 16. Correlation of channels 6 and b. The evidence includes their similar southward flow directions. Their internal stratigraphy is also similar. geometry, stratigraphy and datable carbon in both channel segments. Both channels were narrow and shallow in mappable channel stratigraphy (40 cm wide and 40 cm deep). Unlike channel 6, both were roughly as wide as they were deep and were relatively flat bottomed. Their stratigraphy was similar: predominantly well-sorted fluvial sands with sparse pebbles, overlain by poorly sorted sandy colluvium. In neither channel was there a consistent record of multiple incisions and aggradations. Further support for the correlation of channels 5 and g is the presence of charcoal in both channels. We will discuss the radiocarbon ages of these samples in more detail later, along with ages determined for other samples at the site. For now, let it suffice to say that samples from both channels yielded similar 14 C ages Tentative Correlation of Channel 6-h [57] Erosion of much of channel 6 by younger upstream channels makes matching of this channel a special challenge and less certain. Nonetheless, the correlation we suggest is the most plausible one. The bases for correlation are the channel size, fill and its orientation. [58] The angle of intersection of channel 6 with the fault is the strongest basis for correlation (Figure 16). Channel 6 approached the fault zone at a distinctly acute angle. It was, in fact, the only upstream channel to trend southward as it approached the fault. We might expect, then, that its downstream equivalent would also trend southward away from the fault. Of all the downstream channels, only channels h and l had flow directions near the fault that were compatible with the deflection of channel 6. However, channel l was an unlikely match, because it was much deeper and wider than channel 6. It also had a more complex sequence of cut and fills and a more complex cross-sectional profile (Figure 4e).The general resemblance of the stratigraphy within the channels also favors correlation of channels 6 and h. Both channels had two well-sorted gravely to sandy fluvial beds near their base, separated by a 18 of 33

20 Figure 17. Horizontal and vertical offsets of the six channel pairs. (a) Offset of channel 1-a. The dextral offset of m is indicated by the deepest thalweg and the base of unit 30. Most of this ( m) is across the major strand, fault F4. (b) Total offset of channel 2-b. It is constrained to be m by the deepest thalweg. Possible warping is confined to the reach immediately downstream from fault F5 and is about 0.4 m. (c) Restorations of channels 3-c requiring a total rightlateral offset of 20.7 ± 0.15 m. The majority of the offset is accommodated in the 0.8-m-wide zone between faults F3 and F5. (d) The 22.0 ± 0.2 m offset of channel 4-d, indicated by the average trend (dashed lines) of channel 4-d thalweg. The uncertainty is half the amplitude of channel meanders. Direct connection of channel thalweg suggests a slightly larger offset but within the uncertainty bound of that of the average trend. (e) Map showing the 30.0 ± 0.3 m offset of channel 5-g. Direct connection of data points suggests an offset larger than, but within the uncertainty bound of, that of the average trend. Open symbols for channel thalwegs indicate that the locations of the channel are uncertain at those exposures. (f) The 35.4 ± 0.3 m offset of channel 6-h, using a straight-line extrapolation. The 0.3-m uncertainty is half the maximum amplitude of channel meanders. The obliquity with which this channel intersects the fault zone suggests the offset could be substantially more than 35.4 m. (g) Vertical offsets of the six channel pairs. Longitudinal profiles of the two piercing lines of channel 1 delineate a graben within the fault zone, but the overall vertical offset across the entire fault zone is 5 cm, downstream side up. The vertical offset of channel 2 across the fault zone is 7 14 cm, downstream side down. The long profile of channel 3-c shows that the block between faults F4 and F5 is a small horst with little, if any, vertical offset across the faults. Yet, the total net vertical offset of channel 3-c should also include the offset across F1, which is 10 ± 5 cm, downstream side down. The irregularity of the long profile of channel 4-d suggests warping. However, the cumulative vertical offset across the fault since its incision is nil. Vertical offset of channel 5-g is relatively ill-constrained. If we use the trend of upstream points in the profile, the net vertical offset is cm, with downstream side up. If we use a moderate river gradient, e.g., 3.24, instead, the offset is 0 8 cm, downstream side down. The net vertical offset of channel 6-h is also ill-constrained. The upper bound of net vertical offset is probably about 5 30 cm, up on the downstream side. The lower bound can be 25 cm, down on the downstream side. poorly sorted 25-cm-thick colluvial deposit (cf. exposures sw05, ne10 and ne03; Figure 16) Uncorrelated Older Channels [59] Thus far, we have made plausible correlations between 6 sets of upstream and downstream channels (Figure 11b). Three upstream channels, 7, 8 and 9, remain to be matched with downstream channels. Five downstream channels remain unmatched, e, f, i, j, k and l. None of these channels appear to match across the fault. The correlatives of channels 7, 8 and 9 must lie further to the northwest. The upstream correlatives of the unmatched downstream channels are slightly more complicated. They could have been eroded away by the younger channels, i.e., channels 1 through 6, or they may exist farther to the southeast, outside the bounds of the excavations. 6. Measurement of Offsets [60] Now, we can measure the offsets of the 6 pairs of matched channels. The offset of each pair represents the cumulative displacement since the abandonment of the channel. We will mainly use the deepest thalwegs of channels as offset piercing lines. We are able to measure both horizontal and vertical offsets, because 3-D excavations and surveying by Total Station enable us to reconstruct 19 of 33