Instructor s Manual to accompany Introduction to Geography, 13/e by Getis/Getis/Bjelland/Fellmann

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1 Instructor s Manual to accompany Introduction to Geography, 13/e by Getis/Getis/Bjelland/Fellmann CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Chapter Summary Geography is the study of how and why things differ from place to place on the earth s surface. Geography is the science that studies spatial patterns, culture-environment relations, earth systems, and regions. Geography s roots date to a classical Greek concern with measuring and mapping the earth, examining its biophysical systems, documenting human-environmental interactions and describing regional differences among its inhabited portions. From the outset, consistent sets of themes, concepts, terms, and questions have guided geographic inquiry. Formal training in the themes, concepts, and techniques of geography is important to informed awareness of current local, national, and world affairs. Geographic knowledge is also the doorway to a host of significant and rewarding career opportunities. Places have location, direction, and distance with respect to other places. Places have both physical and cultural attributes and are imbued with meanings that different cultures attach to them. Location may be expressed in either absolute (e.g., latitude and longitude) or relative terms. Relative location expresses spatial interconnections and interdependencies. Similarly, distance can be expressed as absolute (miles or kilometers) or relative distance which depends on transportation routes, travel time and psychological perceptions. The size of areas and the scale at which they are investigated help determine the permissible degree and kinds of geographic generalization. Geographers attempt to analyze really distinctive complexes of physical and cultural features and are concerned with the human-environmental interfaces they display. The interrelationships between places are revealed through the processes and patterns of spatial interaction and spatial diffusion. Concepts of distance, accessibility, and connectivity help reveal those processes. Geography is rooted in the study of spatial relationships and recognizes that spatial interaction is a fundamental organizing principle of the physical and social environment. Globalization is the popular term attached to the increasing interconnection of the world s social, cultural, political, and economic processes and patterns. Although no two areas can have exactly the same physical and cultural content, sufficient evidence of spatial similarity may exist to permit the recognition and definition of regions, earth areas with significant elements of uniformity. Regions are the geographer s device of areal generalization; conceptual spatial summaries intended to recognize the underlying order in the diversity of the earth s surface. Two generalized types of regions are the formal region of uniformity of an essential characteristic and the functional region which is based on a spatial system. Although varied in its content and approaches, all geographic inquiry may be conveniently clustered into four traditions, or approaches to the understanding of the surface of the earth. The earth science, the culture-environment, the locational (or spatial), and the area analysis (or regional) traditions summarize the broad consistency of purpose of geographic study. That consistency is further reflected in both the five fundamental themes of geography and the National Geography Standards. 1

2 Key Words absolute direction absolute distance absolute location accessibility area analysis tradition connectivity cultural landscape culture-environment tradition earth science tradition formal (uniform) region functional (nodal) region globalization locational tradition natural landscape perceptual (vernacular, popular) region region relative direction relative distance relative location scale site situation spatial diffusion spatial interaction Teaching Strategies 1. A brief lecture survey of the major contributions made by geographers and geography s persistent themes and questions can be a useful lead-in to the discussion of the practical problems geography addresses. A special point can be made of the role played by geographic concepts, methods, and conclusions in understanding contemporary political, economic, and ecological problems. Be sure to emphasize the interdisciplinary nature of geography and its concern with both physical and cultural attributes of the earth. The Holt-Jensen and Martin & James books cited in the chapter s website section Selected References and the article Geography in the Encyclopedia Britannica are useful background for a historical survey. The Pattison and Robinson articles in the Journal of Geography help define the unity and diversity in geographic study, while Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 1994 (National Geographic Society) specifies what the geographically informed person knows and understands. Be careful to emphasize important discoveries and concepts rather than obscure names and dates. 2. To demonstrate the relevance of geographic perspectives to understanding contemporary problems, select a prominent current national or world event that lends itself to a geographer s analysis. Start by asking, If you were going to research this issue, what kinds of questions would you want to ask? List some of the core geographic concepts such as location, distance, scale, interrelations between places, accessibility, or 2

3 connectivity, and ask students to identify how that concept is relevant to this case study. Such discussions may help imprint basic geographic concepts and thought processes, preparing students to understand more fully and receptively the substantive concept of the following book chapters and lecture topics. This is also a good way, early in the course, to get students excited about taking a geography course. 3. Take the basic concepts of the first chapter, such as place, site and situation absolute and relative location, and relative and absolute distance and have the students apply these concepts to their campus or community. What is the site and situation of the college or university? Is it a good site for a university? Is it a good situation for a university? Why? What is its relative and absolute distance from the nearest major city or major shopping district? Does the location matter? How would the university or college change if it were in a very different location? Not only can this make for a lively discussion, but it personalizes otherwise dry concepts. 4. Give your students a blank map of the United States with state boundaries and ask them to draw a boundary around any or all of the following: the South (or the Deep South), the Midwest, the Southwest, the Pacific Northwest, and New England. If you compare some of the maps, you ll soon realize that there are wide discrepancies and yet commonalities. Ask students what factors could be used to more systematically distinguish boundaries between regions. 5. Part of this chapter focuses on geography careers. Because many students know little about the discipline of geography, summarize how you got interested in geography. Then discuss the types of careers open to geographers, the amount and sequencing of schooling needed for certain jobs, and other tips to help think about the future. The Association of American Geographers offers a Careers in Geography brochure that you could make available to interested students. 6. Explore the interrelationships between your classroom and other places. Choose a few objects in the room and ask where they came from. Most clothing contains country of origin labels which are a good starting point. It is okay if you don t know where everything comes from that is an important lesson in itself, that we have interrelationships with distant places of which we are not even aware. 7. Demonstrate to students that location really matters by examining house prices in different locations. Using an online real estate website such as find two houses similar in style and size but in different locations. An interesting contrast can be made drawn between prices for similar size and syle houses, one from a rural community in the Midwest or South and the other from a major East Coast or West Coast metropolitan region. Ask students to interpret the vast differences in prices using geographic concepts such as site, situation, relative location, and accessibility. Active Learning Tip The Pause Silence is deep as eternity, speech is shallow as time Thomas Carlyle ( ) 3

4 Silence in the classroom can be intimidating. So instructors tend to ask a question and then promptly give the answer if there isn t an immediate student response. This does not allow some students enough time to digest the material and formulate an answer. Instead, wait 15 to 30 seconds (you may need to count silently). This will give students more time and will also refocus the class attention. You can also take a clarification pause in which you ask if anyone would like a point explained or clarified. Wait seconds to allow nervous students to get their nerve up. You can also use this time to walk around the room, which sometimes prompts students to ask a question. It will also keep sleepy or distracted students focused on the topic. Based on ideas presented or discussed in Faust, Jennifer L. & Paulson, Donald R Active Learning in the College Classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching 9(2):

5 CHAPTER 2: MAPS Chapter Summary An essential means of describing the earth on which we live, maps can communicate effectively if we appreciate the logic behind their construction and modes of representation. An artificial grid system is essential to locate points on a sphere. The grid system of meridians and parallels (latitude and longitude) is the most common, but other systems are also important. Different land survey systems including the French long-lot and the U.S. township and range system have been used to locate and subdivide land and have left a lasting imprint on the landscape. Because the globe is not flat, some system of projection is necessary to transfer the spherical coordinates to a flat surface. Because all projections involve distortion, the cartographer must evaluate the intended use of the map to determine which projection to use. Area, shape, distance, and direction are distorted in different ways and to different degrees by each projection. A scale compares distance on a map to the actual distance on the ground. Scale is represented three ways: verbally like one inch on a map to one mile on the surface; graphically in the form of a bar divided into sections, each representing a certain distance on the earth; or as representative fraction like 1:63,360 i.e., one inch on the map showing 63,360 inches or one mile of the ground distance. Geographers use a wide variety of maps depending on the purpose of spatial analysis. Topographic maps provide a wealth of information about both natural and cultural landscape features, although the main concern is elevation as represented by contours. Published at several different map scales, topographic maps have many uses. Maps are basic to the study of spatial patterns, and different techniques are used to record the numbers of objects at specific points, in given areas, or along certain lines. Dots, proportional circles, and three-dimensional symbols are common ways of indicating quantities at given points. For variations over areas, choropleth maps show how the amount of a phenomenon varies from area to area using contrasting colors or patterns. Examples of map lines that denote numerical values are isolines and flow lines. Part of being a skilled map user is being aware of ways that map design can intentionally or unintentionally create a distorted impression through choice of projection, color and symbolization schemes, as well as through deliberately introduced errors. Two geographic information technologies remote sensing and global positioning systems (GPS) have revolutionized map production. Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object without being in direct contact with the object. Aerial photography is one method of remote sensing and another is the use of sensors on satellites or spacecraft. Remotely sensed data about the earth is not limited to conventional photography but can use wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible range to provide information not visible to the naked eye. Examples include using remote sensing to determine the health of vegetation, the clarity of water, and surface temperatures. Radar can be used to map the location of various objects such as storm systems and LIDAR can be used to precisely map the earth s surface elevation. Among the advantages of remote sensing are speed and accuracy, the ability to map large areas otherwise hard to survey, and the option of gathering data during nighttime as well as daytime. Since the 1970s the Global Positioning System (GPS) has made it easier for determining the longitude and latitude of almost any location on the earth. The orbiting satellite components are 5

6 maintained by the U.S. Department of Defense, allowing ground-based civilian GPS receivers to receive signals and calculate their coordinates of longitude and latitude. In recent years, computers have become an integral part of almost every stage of the cartographic process. A geographic information system (GIS) is a tool for assembling, storing, manipulating, analyzing, and displaying geographic data such as that collected using remote sensing and GPS. Its major components are the geographic database (digital map data), the hardware used to store and retrieve the data, and associated computer software. The World Wide Web plays a major role in the dissemination and integration of geospatial data, in part through interactive mapping web sites freely available to the public. Key Words area cartogram (valuebyarea map) azimuthal projection cartography choropleth map conformal projection contour interval contour line equal-area (equivalent) projection equidistant projection equivalent projection flow line map geographic database geographic grid geographic information system (GIS) Global Positioning System (GPS) globe properties International Date Line isoline Landsat satellite latitude longitude map projection prime meridian scale topographic map Teaching Strategies 1. Demonstrate for students the use of interactive mapping sites that are available on the World Wide Web. You can demonstrate the concept of map scale by zooming in and out and paying attention to the level of detail that is visible. You can also show how maps and remotely sensed images can become out of date by examining areas of new development to see whether new roads and buildings are visible. 2. Discuss why a grid system and projections are necessary. What grid systems other than the one presented in the text exist (e.g., the military grid system and state plane 6

7 coordinate system)? Why are a variety of projections needed to show the earth s surface? 3. If class size permits, students should be given topographic maps (preferably of the local area) at several different scales to compare with one another and with their knowledge of the landscape. Specific skills that can be taught include reading elevations, identifying locations using latitude and longitude, drawing a profile, and interpreting landforms. Some maps also have more than one coordinate system on them, which can become a teaching point. 4. If you can give students identical copies of a single topographic quadrangle, point out that: a. A contour line always closes upon itself to form a loop, although this may not occur within the area shown on a single map. b. Contour lines never cross one another. c. Contour lines bend upstream when they cross stream valleys. d. Benchmarks, points of known elevation and location, are designed on the quadrangle by the letters B.M. 5. Ask students to answer questions such as: a. Do all points on the same contour lines have the same elevation? (Yes) b. If you walk along a contour, will you eventually get back to your starting point? (Yes) c. Do closely spaced contours indicate a gentle or steep slope? (Steep) d. What is the contour interval? (Answers will vary depending on quadrangle selected). e. What is the lowest elevation on the map? The highest? f. What do a ridge, ravine, and depression look like on a topographic map? 6. Review and show examples of different remote sensing techniques and the application of remotely sensed data in such fields as geology, land use planning, agriculture, environmental monitoring, and conservation. If possible, have students interpret some Landsat imagery and learn to interpret false color imagery. The Earthshot website is a good source for satellite imagery of environmental change. It can be found at Furthermore, internet weather sites present satellite and radar imagery that can be viewed by all. 7. Ask students to discuss the questions raised in the Geography and Public Policy box Civilian Spy Satellites in the wake of current geopolitical events. To supplement this discussion, you can show a short clip from a current movie or television show that features geographic information technologies. Examples might include Enemy of the State or The Bourne Ultimatum. Discuss whether the technologies are realistically portrayed. 8. Ask students to bring in maps from newspapers or magazines. If you have access to a document camera, you can easily show them to the entire class. Have students identify the type of map and critique the map. 9. Uncritical acceptance of maps is dangerous because map elements may be deliberately manipulated to persuade the reader. Explore some of the ways that projection, scale, symbolization, and legends can distort a map to give a particular perception of a situation. 7