Lattice Energy LLC. Technical Overview

Transcription

1 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENRs) Ultra low momentum neutron (ULMN) capture on Carbon (C) seed nuclei: W-L W L theory, model LENR nucleosynthetic networks, and review of selected LENR experiments Technical Overview Lewis Larsen, President and CEO Facts do not cease to exist because they are ignored. Aldous Huxley in Proper Studies

2 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Contents Preview of nucleosynthetic pathways 3-4 Overview - I through V 5-9 W-L L theory and carbon-seed nucleosynthetic networks Review and discussion of selected LENR experiments: Metallic Palladium (substrate for nuclear-active active sites) with Carbon: 1999: SRI replication of 1998 Case/D 2 gas; McKubre et al Primarily non-metallic Carbon substrates hosting nuclear-active active sites: 1994: Texas A&M carbon-arc/h arc/h 2 O; Sundaresan and Bockris : BARC carbon-arc/h arc/h 2 O; Singh et al Are LENRs connected with hydrogenated fullerenes/graphene? Final comments Ending quotation: Erwin Schrödinger (1944)

3 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Preview of Nucleosynthetic Pathways - I Vector of LENR nucleosynthetic pathway in red Begin at Carbon (C) End-up at Nickel (Ni) 3

4 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Preview of Nucleosynthetic Pathways - II The neutron- catalyzed r- process (see path on chart) that astrophysicists believe occurs mainly in stellar supernova explosions is thought to produce most of the nuclei heavier than Iron (Fe). It operates in the neutron-rich rich region of the nuclear landscape to the right of the valley of stability to beta - decay. Extremely neutron- rich isotopes have a much wider variety of available decay channels in addition to simple β -. Begin at Carbon (C) Map of the Isotopic Nuclear Landscape Valley of stability R-process pathway Nickel Neutron dripline??? In this presentation, we will apply W-L W theory and examine LENR experiments in the yellow triangular region from the valley of stability (small black squares) thru neutron-rich, rich, beta- decay isotopic regions that lie to the right of stability Carbon between Carbon (C) and Nickel (Ni) While they differ from stellar environments in many important aspects, LENR systems can produce large fluxes of a wide variety of extremely neutron- rich nuclei from low to very high values of A. Thus, they may someday be able to provide nuclear physics with a new and exciting, much lower-cost experimental tool for exploring the far reaches of the nuclear landscape and boundaries of nuclear stability. This possibility deserves further careful study. 4

5 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Overview - I For more detailed explanation of information underlying this presentation, please refer to 78-slide Lattice SlideShare Technical Overview dated June 25, Recapping - under nonequilibrium conditions in surface patches of hydrogenous ions and heavy electrons that are cooked with large fluxes of ULM neutrons, over time large steady-state state populations of unstable, extremely neutron-rich rich halo nuclei tend to build-up. up. Neutron halos first discovered in Li in 1985; hot R&D area today. Herein - using Widom-Larsen theory, we will explore part of the vast nuclear landscape of LENRs (see previous slide) via ULM neutron- catalyzed LENR nucleosynthetic networks: starting with neutron captures on Carbon seed nuclei; production of very neutron-rich, rich, unstable intermediate products; ending with an array of stable transmutation products that extend upward to Nickel. 5

6 Lattice Energy LLC Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Overview - II At this point in our understanding of nuclear physics, please note that extremely neutron-rich rich halo nuclei that comprise intermediate products created in condensed matter LENR ULMN nucleosynthetic networks are, in many respects, still little understood and poorly characterized. For example: neutron capture cross-sections sections are unknown for many; short half-lives lives can be very difficult to measure accurately; true location of neutron dripline unclear at higher A. In condensed matter LENRs, neutron-rich rich halo isotopes continue to absorb ULM neutrons as long as capture Q-values Q remain favorable (prompt and delayed capture gammas are converted into infrared by b heavy electrons) and as long as they are unable to decay via a variety v of available channels that include emission of β - electrons (fermions) and/or shedding low-energy neutrons (fermions) into unoccupied states in local continuum. Compared to ions in hot stellar plasmas or neutron-rich rich fragments made in radioactive-ion ion beam colliders, LENR systems usually have much higher local densities of occupied states. tes. 6

7 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Overview - III Key consequences of this unique situation in LENR systems (very dense occupation of local fermionic states) are that: (a) effective half lf-lives lives of very neutron-rich rich intermediates can sometimes be significantly longer than measured textbook half-lives lives of comparatively isolated nuclei; and (b) % branching ratios for alternative β - -delayed decay channels that are normally available to such isotopes may change markedly compared to those of isolated nuclei ratios may shift if certain decay channels are blocked and unavailable. Thus certain types of decays can be frustrated in LENR systems until unoccupied states open-up for whatever reason. From low (better understood) to high values of A, unstable neutron on-rich isotopes far from the valley of stability have a richer variety of decay channel choices than many types of nuclei. These are β - decays followed by related beta-delayed emissions of gammas, neutrons (up to 3), alpha particles, tritons (Tritium), and deuterons (Deuterium). Although h their production cross-sections sections are generally small, certain isotopes have very substantial β-delayed branches, e.g. ~12% of N-18 N decays also emit alphas. 7

8 Lattice Energy LLC Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Overview - IV Excited states of nuclei formed in beta decay, for example, can show other types of radioactive behavior. In such beta-delayed radioactivity, the excited nuclear states can emit other particles... If, however, the excitation [of the daughter nucleus] is high enough, then it is possible that an alpha particle, a neutron or a proton n are emitted from this state This radioactivity is beta-delayed because the particles are only emitted after a time equal to the half-life life of the beta particle [emission]. W. Scharf, Particle Accelerators and Their Uses, pp. 726 Taylor & Francis Few observations of beta-delayed particles published prior to types of beta-delayed particle emissions have been observed Over 100 beta-delayed particle radioactivities are known today Theoretically, perhaps >1,000 isotopes could exhibit such decays 8

9 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Overview - V We will first examine a model ULM neutron-catalyzed LENR nucleosynthetic network that begins with neutron captures on stable Carbon isotopes (A=12, mass; Z=6, # of protons; N=6, # of neutrons). ns). This region of LENR nucleosynthetic parameter space is very interesting because, although the values of A are not large here, certain Nitrogen (N) isotopes have β - -delayed delayed alpha (He-4) 4)-decay channels that have significant He-4 4 production cross-sections. sections. Role played by neutron-rich rich N isotopes is somewhat similar to that of Be-8 8 in LENR cycle beginning with ULMN captures on Lithium that was outlined in Equations in our 2006 EPJC paper. This implies LENR experiments involving ULMN captures on Carbon seed targets may produce significant quantities of He-4 4 without any Lithium being present and importantly, without any need to invoke questionable D-D D cold fusion processes to explain such data. 9

10 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy W-L L theory and carbon-seed nucleosynthetic networks 10

11 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -I ULMN capture on carbon, neutron-rich rich isotope production, and related decays 2He-4 Pool Stable 99.99% Boson sink Increasing values of A [BR = %] 3.3 [BR = %] 2.3 [BR = 12.2 %] 7.7 Branching ratios of beta-delayed decays will be discussed further; data sources differ on some of them Increasing values of Z 6 C-12 Stable 98.7% Legend: C C C C Stable 1.3% HL=5.7x10 3 y HL= 2.5 sec HL=747 msec ULM neutron captures proceed from left to right; Q-Q value of capture reaction in MeV is on top of green 7.5 horizontal arrow: Beta decays proceed from top to bottom; denoted w. blue vertical arrow with Q-value Q in MeV in blue to left: 7.5 Totally stable isotopes are indicated by green boxes; some with extremely long half-lives lives are labeled ~stable ;; natural abundances denoted in % Unstable isotopes are indicated by purplish boxes; when measured, half-lives lives are shown as HL = xx N-14 Stable 99.6% Beta-delayed alpha decays are denoted by orange arrows with decay energy in MeV: 7.5 Beta-delayed neutron emissions are denoted by pink dotted lines with arrows; decay 7.5 energy in MeV: Gamma emissions are not shown here; are automatically converted directly to infrared by heavy SPP electrons O-16 Stable 99.76% C HL=193 msec C HL=92 msec N N N N Stable 0.4% HL=7.1 sec HL=4.2 sec HL=622 msec O O Stable 0.04% Stable 0.20% Well-accepted reports documenting beta-delayed alpha decays in neutron-rich rich Nitrogen (N) isotopes were first published in major journals ca Network continues onward to higher A 6 C-19 HL=46 msec N-19 HL=271 msec O-19 HL=26.5 sec F-19 ~Stable 100% A total of nine different Carbon Carbon cycle pathways are possible in this region of the model LENR nucleosynthetic network; four of them are as follows: ows: (C-12 thru C-15) C -> > N-15 N -> > N-16 N -> > C-12 C + He-4 4 ; total Q v = ~30 MeV/He-4 4 atom (C-12 thru C-16) C -> > N-16 N -> > C-12 C + He-4 4 ; total Q v = ~30.0 MeV/He-4 4 atom (C-12 thru C-17) C -> > N-17 N -> > C-13 C + He-4 4 ; total Qv = ~35.0 MeV/He-4 4 atom (C-12 thru C-18) C -> > N-18 N -> > C-14 C + He-4 4 ; total Qv = ~43.2 MeV/He-4 4 atom

12 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -II C-20 HL= 14 msec N-20 HL=100 msec O-20 HL= 13.5 sec F-20 HL= 11.0 sec N-21 HL= 85 msec Neutron Capture Ends on C 8 O-21 HL= 3.4 sec F-21 HL= 4.2 sec N HL= 24 msec N-23 HL=14.5 msec O O HL= 2.3 sec HL= 82 msec Neutron Capture Ends on N 8 O-24 HL= 61 msec F F F HL= 4.2 sec HL= 2.2 sec HL= 0.3 sec 0.5 Please note this region of very highenergy beta - decays of neutron-rich Nitrogen isotopes (N-20 through N-23) Neutron Capture Ends on O 9 F-25 HL= 59 msec Network can continue further to even higher values of A if ULM neutron fluxes are large enough and of sufficient duration. This is similar to stars, but with key differences 9 F-26 HL=10.2 msec F-27 HL= 4.9 msec Neutron Capture Ends on F 10 Ne-20 Stable 90.5% Ne-21 Stable 0.25% Ne Ne Stable 9.25% HL= 37.2 sec 10 Ne-24 HL= 3.4 min Ne-25 HL= 602 msec Ne-26 HL= 197 msec Ne-27 HL= 32 msec 3.9 Network continues Note the large size of the Q-values Q for beta - decays of N-22 N (22.8 MeV) and N-23 N (23.8 MeV) Na-23 Stable 100% Na-24 HL= 15 hrs Na-25 HL= 1 min Na-26 HL= 1.1 sec Na-27 HL= 301 msec 3.5 Network continues For comparison, here are some representative Q-values Q of prosaic hot fusion processes with high Coulomb barriers: D + D -> > He gamma (23.9 MeV) minor D-D D D fusion branch ~10-5 % Mg-24 Stable 79% Mg-25 Stable 10% Mg-26 Stable 11% Mg-27 HL= 9.5 min 8.5 Network continues D + T -> > He MeV neutron (17.6 MeV) D + D -> > Triton + proton (4.03 MeV) BR ~50% D + D -> > He neutron (3.27 MeV) ) BR ~50% This data illustrates how LENRs may have the potential to be a much m better power generation technology than hot fusion; they release just as much energy without any energetic neutrons or gamma radiation Al-27 Stable 100% 7.7 Network continues 12

13 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -III Here is how fusion-based carbon cycles are thought to operate in stars Cycle 1: stellar CNO nucleosynthetic cycle Cycles 1 4: CNO + 3 nucleosynthetic cycles thru Ne-18 and Ne-19 Starts at C-12C Produces one He-4 4 per cycle Starts at C-12C Comments: : in the stellar CNO cycle only C-12 C is recycled; in LENR-based carbon cycles, C-12, C C-13, C and C-14 C are all potentially regenerated. In general, ULMN catalyzed nucleosynthetic networks involve production of substantially more neutron-rich rich isotopes than stellar networks, e.g., C-14C-20; N-14N-23; O-19O-24; F- Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, F-27 27; ; and Ne-20 Ne-27.. Alpha decays are far more common events in low-a A stellar fusion processes 13

14 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -IV Discussion of ULM neutron captures starting with Carbon seeds Large Q-values Q for beta decays of neutron-rich rich isotopes (up to 23.8 MeV in this region of the nucleosynthetic network) created in LENR systems produce unstable daughter nuclei in highly excited states; this environment is favorable to beta-delayed decay processes wherein nuclei have wider range of dynamic choices for alternative decay channels As shown in Carbon-seed nucleosynthetic network diagrams, ULM neutron capture on Carbon isotopes can produce Helium-4 4 via beta-delayed alpha decay channels, which under normal circumstances would be unusual for typical nuclei at such values of A As measured in neutron-rich rich fragments collected and analyzed in RNB particle collider experiments, branching ratios for beta-delayed alpha decays of Nitrogen isotopes are presently thought to be: N-16 N (0.001 %); N-17 N ( %); and N-18 N (12.2 %) There is reason to believe that such alpha branching ratios could d be substantially different for operating LENR systems in which dense local populations of heavy h (energetic) SPP electrons and very neutron-rich rich nuclei simultaneously coexist with large fluxes of ULM neutrons. In such environments, high occupation of local fermionic ic states may hinder beta- delayed emission of fermions (neutrons and electrons i.e., beta particles) into the local continuum. All other things being equal, it may be easier for nuclei to emit bosons (He-4 particles and gamma photons) that can quickly bleed-off excess energy to de-excite excite 14

15 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -V Discussion of ULM neutron captures starting with Carbon seeds Depending on the Q-value Q of the related beta decay, beta-delayed neutrons have particle energies that can range from as little as ~18 kev up to ~5 + MeV (e.g., N-22); N however, maximum measured neutron energies published in the literature are e typically from <1-2 MeV with peaks in their statistical distributions often falling between een MeV While beta-delayed neutron decays and their related Q-values Q are shown in the network diagrams, they do not appear to have substantial production cross-sections sections in LENR systems. This conclusion is based on fact that in 20 years of episodically intense measurement efforts, large fluxes of energetic neutrons have never er been observed in any LENR system. What is occasionally seen in experiments where neutrons are measured are relatively small, bursty fluxes of relatively low-energy neutrons that do not appear to correlate strongly with the presence or absence of heat production. on. Indeed, one of the early criticisms of cold fusion was that MeV-energy energy neutron production was many orders of magnitude less than what would normally be expected from prosaic D-D D fusion reactions In some LENR systems, small amounts of beta-delayed neutron emissions may occur as a given micron-scale, nuclear-active active patch site is in the process of shutting down. That is, when production of heavy electrons and ULM neutrons declines in such a site, unoccupied fermionic states can then begin to open-up in the local continuum, allowing previously frustrated beta decays to proceed that can in turn produce delayed neutron emissions 15

16 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -VI Nine different carbon cycle pathways can occur within the network Model nucleosynthetic network herein has a total of nine possible pathways that function as leaky carbon cycles, regenerating C-12, C or C-13, C or C-14 C and producing one He-4 4 atom (alpha particle) per cycle Total raw Q-values for the model s s 9 different carbon cycles range from ~30.0 MeV/He-4 4 to ~43.2 MeV/He-4; when you adjust for the energetic cost of making ULM neutrons, net Q v s range from ~28.4 to ~40.9 MeV/He-4 These LENR carbon cycles are leaky in that they are an incidental byproduct of a ULM neutron-driven nucleosynthetic network that is constantly trying to produce stable nuclei at higher and higher values of A He-4 4 is a boson; has no Fermi pressure issues with occupied local states like neutrons and electrons. Can serve as a bosonic sink in LENR systems; also can readily leave nuclear-active active sites in the form of a gas LENR carbon cycles will continue to operate as long as Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 ULM neutrons are available to drive reaction network Please see the Wikipedia article about the CNO carbon cycle in stars at: In stars hotter and more massive than our sun, CNO-I I cycle produces MeV/He-4 Adjusted net Q v s (assume D used to make ULM neutrons; gross Q v is adjusted to reflect an input energy cost of 0.39 MeV/neutron) for the model s s nine different carbon cycle pathways are calculated as follows (in MeV): 40.86, 40.86, 33.05, 40.76, 32.95, 28.44, 40.76, 32.95, and 28.44/He-4 Note: : some pathways have identical net Q v Based on branching values measured in isolated RNB fragments (12.2% for N-18) N the four ~40 MeV paths might appear to be most probable. However, as we discussed, it appears very likely that these branching ratios could have very different values in operating LENR systems; for discussion purposes, let s s assume that is true. Note that model s Q v s fall into two groups: four high- energy paths (avg. net Q v = 40.81) and five lower-energy energy paths (avg. net Qv = MeV/He-4). A simple average of the two group average Q v s is MeV/He-4. Also note: : all values larger than CNO-I I in stars 16

17 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -VII ULM neutron fluxes and traversing the Fluorine valley of death LENR nucleosynthetic networks operating in condensed matter have issues with produced Fluorine that are not present with ions in fusion-based stellar environments LENR-active micron-scale patch sites in condensed matter systems must maintain coherent oscillations of protons or deuterons on surfaces for weak interaction ULMN production to continue locally without interruption Free Fluorine atoms or F 2 molecules produced by LENR network in nuclear-active active patches will react violently with any nearby hydrogen atoms (producing HF, DF, or TF), carbon atoms (making fluorinated carbons with ultra- strong C-F C F bonds), or metal atoms, e.g., PdFPdF 6. Such energetic chemical reactions can disrupt coherence in patches, patches, thus creating a potential valley of death that LENR networks must necessarily traverse in order to be able to create heavier elements at higher values of A Best strategy to traverse valley of death is to combine very high rates of ULM neutron production with largest- active patches Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 possible physical dimensions of LENR-active Please see the redirected Wikipedia article on the chemistry of Fluorine at: Also see a short article by: T. Furuya and T. Ritter, Carbon-Fluorine Reductive Elimination from a High-Valent Palladium Fluoride, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, pp , 2008 at: ons/page12/files/ j.pdf 10060j.pdf In carbon-capture capture LENR systems, all other things being equal, the greater the input energy (e.g., in the form of electrical current) per unit of time, the higher the potential rate of ULM neutron production. The higher the neutron flux, the more effectively and quickly an LENR system will be able to traverse Fluorine s valley of death. Systems producing much smaller neutron fluxes in comparison to well-performing aqueous electrolytic cells (e.g., using pressure and heat-driven H/D ion permeation-diffusion a la Iwamura et al. s experiments) will likely have difficulty going beyond Oxygen, let alone Fluorine. Rates of chemical reactions can vary from sec to > 1 second. In particular, for reactions F + H 2 HF + H and F + D 2 DF + D the measured rate constants at o K are 1.54 x and 0.82 x cm 3 /sec. Therefore, the higher a ULM neutron production rate is above the key value of cm 2 /sec, the easier it will be for a Carbon-seed LENR network to produce higher-a A isotopes beyond Fluorine See: Igoshin et al., Determination of the rate constant of the chemical reaction F + H 2 (D 2 ) HF(DF) + H(D) from the stimulated emission of HF molecules, Soviet Journal of Quantum Electronics 3 pp

18 ULMN catalyzed LENR network starting from 6 C 12 -VIII β decays of neutron-rich rich isotopes can release large amounts of energy The good news about Uranium and Plutonium fission reactions is that they have Q v s of ~190 + MeV, releasing most of their energy on a time scale of ~10-19 seconds in the form of prompt neutron and gamma radiation as well as fast moving, neutron- rich, asymmetric fission fragments comprising unstable products that undergo further decays; bad news is production of large quantities of prompt hard radiation and hazardous long-lived lived radioactive isotopes; massive shielding is mandatory Good news about cleaner D-T T fusion reactions in commercial power reactors is Q v of ~17.6 MeV; bad news is that much of the energy released is in the form of hard to manage 14.1 MeV neutrons along with gammas and neutron-induced radioactivity in apparatus; high temps create huge engineering problems Good news about LENR-based nucleosynthetic networks is that they do not produce biologically significant quantities of hard gamma/neutron radiation or hazardous long-lived lived radioactive isotopes; in contrast to fission/fusion, no bad news for LENRs Many scientists mistakenly believe that weak interactions are weak energetically; that is incorrect. In network herein, N-17 N Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 and N-18 N beta - decays release 22.8 and 23.8 MeV, respectively Please see: France et al., Absolute branching ratio of beta-delayed gamma-ray emission of 18 N ph/pdf/0307/ v2.pdf (2003) Controversy about measurements: Buchmann et al., Some remarks about β- delayed α-decay of 16 N at: v1.pdf (2009) Other measurements: C. S. Sumithrarachchi,, PhD thesis, Michigan State University, The study of beta-delayed neutron decay near the neutron drip line at: /download/sumithrarachchi2007_231.pdf (2007) Raabe et al., Beta-delayed deuteron emission from 11 Li: decay of the halo at: v1.pdf (2008) Comment: : please recall that fission and fusion reactions mainly involve the strong interaction, whereas key nuclear processes in LENRs involve weak interaction, i.e., ULM neutron production via e+p or e+d and beta decays 18

19 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Review and discussion of LENR experiments - I Metallic Palladium (substrate for nuclear-active active sites) with Carbon 1999 SRI replication of 1998 Case/D 2 gas; McKubre et al. 19

20 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - I SRI replicates 1998 Case experiment measurements of He-4 and heat Details of these experiments at SRI are fully described in two papers cited to the right Goals of Case replication experiments at SRI were to measure the following parameters over the duration of a given experiment: (a.) excess heat with calorimetry; and (b.) production of Helium (He-4) with mass spectrometry by design, no other types of nuclear transmutation products were measured or assayed during the experiments Commercial preparations of activated C --- carbon powder (ordinary charcoal, containing % of finely-divided, nano/micron /micron-sized particles of Pd) were placed in steel vessels, after which they were filled with D 2 or H 2 gas under atm. of pressure and sealed tightly. They were then heated up to o C and left to cook for up to 45 + days. Heat evolution was measured continuously; Helium-isotopes isotopes were measured Source of Graphic: either Nature, by 445, taking January 4, 2007 samples at intervals or at the end of a given experiment Please see : McKubre et al., The emergence of a coherent explanation for anomalies observed in D/Pd and H/Pd system: Evidence for 4 He and 3 He production ICCF-8 conference, Lerici,, Italy (2000) Free document available online at: Another detailed description and extensive discussion of this experimental work can be found in a document prepared for the DOE technical review of cold fusion that occurred in November 2004: Hagelstein et al., New physical effects in metal deuterides (see Section 3. Helium and excess heat on pp. 7 10, especially Fig. 6 on pp. 8 showing helium increase vs. estimated energy, as well as the long discussion found in Appendix B. Results for the Case experiment at SRI from pp ) canr.org/acrobat/mckubremchtheemergen.pdf can be found at: canr.org/acrobat/hagelsteinnewphysica.pdf In January 2005, copies of written comments submitted by the outside scientists on the 2004 DOE cold fusion review panel were leaked to the public; it is a truly fascinating 45- page document that can be found at: 20

21 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - II SRI replication of 1998 Case experiment in light of W-L theory of LENRs In the light of the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs, it is apparent that Case replication experiments at SRI were, in some ways, conceptually similar to Mitsubishi/Iwamura experiments (see Lattice Technical Overview dated June 25, 2009, Slides # 44-45) Case experiment is similar to Iwamura s in that the external input energy required to produce ULM neutrons comes from just a combination of pressure/temperature-driven loading of D + or H + ion fluxes into Pd (no external electric currents are applied) According to W-L W L theory, this means that ULM neutron fluxes produced in such cells would likely be substantially less than ULM neutron fluxes observed in well-performing Pons- Fleischmann-type electrolytic experiments ULMNs would be produced on outer surfaces of Pd particles in intimate contact w. Carbon; nuclear Source products of Graphic: Nature, (e.g., 445, He-4) January would 4, 2007 be on top of such surfaces or released directly into gas Figure 11. Configuration of the Case experiment at SRI. Source : Hagelstein et al., New physical effects in metal deuterides - this Figure found in Appendix B. Results for the Case experiment at SRI on pp. 19 of 2004 paper Note: : one flask contains D 2 gas under pressure and the second flask contains H 2 gas at the same pressure Evolved gases are acquired for measurement in a mass spectrometer by bleeding-off small samples through the valves in extraction tubes shown at top of diagram 21

22 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - III Central results of SRI s replication of Case experiments - I Note: Figure 1 was present in the original conference report prepared by McKubre et al. for presentation at ICCF-8 in 2000 Note: present in 2000 and in paper specially prepared for DOE in 2004 Figure 1 and its related text were not present in paper prepared in 2004 for DOE review panel Discrepancy between D-D cold fusion hypothesis and experimental observations Note: green dashed line predicted by D-D fusion; blue solid line was observed This Figure (but not the caption) present on pp. 6 in earlier paper presented at ICCF-8 in 2000 It is clear from the slopes of these two lines that the observed 4 He constitutes only 76 ± 30% of the 4 He predicted by equation [1]. A more significant problem in Figure 1 is that three further 4 He samples, taken at times of non-zero excess power (open diamonds), exhibited helium concentrations only at the level of the analytical uncertainty, as did numerous samples taken in the apparent absence of excess power production. Clearly if 4 He is produced in association with excess power, it is not released to the gas phase immediately, or completely. Source of Figure and caption: : McKubre et al., The emergence of a coherent explanation for anomalies observed in D/Pd and H/Pd Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 system: Evidence for 4 He and 3 He production pp. 3 Figure 6. Excess energy determined by gradient (boxes) and differential (diamonds) calorimetric methods plotted against the increase in 4 He concentration in a metal-sealed helium leak-tight vessel. The experiment was performed by heating palladium on carbon hydrogenation catalyst materials to 190 o C in 3 atmospheres of D 2 gas pressure (see Appendix B). Source of Figure and caption: : Hagelstein et al., New physical effects in metal deuterides - this Figure is found on pp. 8 of 2004 paper specially prepared for the DOE cold fusion review panel Note measured results: : 31 to 32 MeV/He-4, plus or minus an est. error of plus or minus 13 MeV (range of heat/he-4 4 is ~18-45 MeV) 22

23 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - IV Central results of SRI s replication of Case experiments - II Figure is present in 2000 and in paper prepared for DOE in 2004 Figure is present in 2000 and in paper prepared for DOE in 2004 See discussion of anomalous declining He ppm in this region in Slide #37 Figure 12. Results of 4 He measurements from the case experiment at SRI. Quoting caption in 2000 paper: Figure 2 [labeled as Figure 12 in 2004 paper] summarizes 6 of 16 results obtained in paired cells Using direct, on-line, highresolution mass spectrometric measurement of [ 4 He] we observed the following behaviors: (i) cells that show no increase of 4 He over long periods of time (including all cells operated with H 2 instead of D 2 ); (ii) cells that exhibit a slow, approximately exponential increase in [ 4 He] with time; (iii) cells that display no measurable increase in [ 4 He] for a period of several days, followed by a rapid, approximately linear rise in [ 4 He] to levels sometimes exceeding that of the ambient background. Source of Figure and caption: : Hagelstein et al., New physical effects in Source metal deuterides of Graphic: Nature, - this Figure 445, January is found 4, 2007 on pp. 20 of 2004 paper prepared for the DOE cold fusion review panel Figure 13. Excess energy and helium production as a function of time from the Case experiment at SRI. Quoting caption in 2000 paper: The energy estimated in excess of that provided by the heater for these two calorimetric methods is plotted in Figure 3 [labeled as Figure 12 in 2004 paper], together with the measured helium concentration during the time of greatest derivative, [ 4 He]/ t in experiment SC2. It is clear that the appearance of excess heat and the apparent increase in [ 4 He] are temporally correlated [now from 2004] There is reasonable confidence that the 4 He source of the rising trends in Figures 12 and 13 is not a release of stored 4 He from the catalyst Source of Figure and caption : Hagelstein et al., New physical effects in metal deuterides - this Figure is found on pp. 21 of 2004 paper prepared for the DOE cold fusion review panel 23

24 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - V Initial discussion of SRI s replication of Case experiments Results shown in Figs. 1, 6, 12, and 13 show strong positive correlation between the production of He-4 and production of excess heat in Pd/C/D LENR system Depending on the calorimetric estimation method, quantitative results shown in Figs. 1, 6, and 13 indicate a value of excess heat produced per observed He-4 atom of ~31 to 32 MeV along with an estimated experimental error of plus or minus ~13 MeV; this error results in likely range of values from ~18-45 MeV Authors implicitly assumed that only one heat- producing nuclear process could possibly take place in their system: D-D D cold fusion reaction wherein D + + D + He [heat] with a Q v = MeV (BNL) Issue with SRI s s results: : authors D-D cold fusion hypothesis predicted a Q v of ~23.8 MeV/He-4, but values of MeV/He-4 4 were actually measured Question: : how can one explain discrepancy between measured quantities of excess heat vs. amount of He-4 detected with mass spectroscopy of gas samples? As to McKubre et al. s s attempted explanation for the observed discrepancy, please see their ICCF-8 8 paper (2000) cited on Slide #20; quoting directly from it: pp. 3 if 4 He is produced in association with excess power, it is not released to the gas phase immediately, or completely. pp. 6 [paragraph beneath Fig. 4] Clarification of a possible origin for the apparent 4 He deficit in experiments 1 and 2 can be obtained from the results of experiment 3.. Approximately 82 kj of excess heat was measured in the electrolysis of a 100 mm x 1mm Pd wire cathode in D 2 O. This experiment was performed in a rigorously metal sealed and helium leak-tested cell and apparatus provided with the facility to sample the gas in the headspace. When initially analyzed following a period of excess power production, the gas phase contained only 62% of the 4 He expected if reaction [1] were the source of the excess heat. A second sample showed an increase in [ 4 He] despite the fact that the helium content of the vessel had been diluted with D 2 containing low levels of 4 He, in order to make up the initial gas volume after the first gas sample. Taking these increases as evidence of sequestered 4 He, the cathode was subjected to an extended period (~200 hours) of compositional and temperature cycling by varying the current density in both anodic and cathodic directions. 24

25 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - VI MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - I There are several aspects to the discrepancy between theory (hypothesized D-D D cold fusion reaction) and experiment in McKubre et al. s s published results: 1. Shortfall in amount of observed He-4 4 relative to what is theoretically predicted by the cold D-D D fusion reaction. Assuming that McKubre et al. s s calorimetry was accurate (heat measured correctly) and that all their mass spectrometry data on He-4 4 was correct, where did all the Helium-4 4 produced by the cold D-D reaction go? If He-4 4 did not leak-out, and since it will not react chemically with any materials inside apparatus (which could produce molecular ions that may confuse a mass spectrometer), then what? 2. Odd anomaly of declining Helium concentrations observed in sealed vessels that occurred beyond day #20 in experiments SC2 and SC4.2 as shown in Figure 12 on left-hand side of Slide #23 was that the result of: (a) leakage from the vessels; (b) ad- or ab- sorption of helium onto/into materials (Pd, C, or Fe) found within the vessels; or (c) something else? Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Continuing to quote directly from McKubre et al. s s ICCF-8 8 paper (2000): pp. 6 7 A A mass balance of 4 He was calculated based on two further gas samples: one to determine the helium content of the D 2 gas used initially to fill and refill the sealed metal cell (0.34 ± ppmv); the other to measure the final helium concentration in the gas phase after exercising the cathode to release trapped gases (2.08 ± 0.01 ppmv). Taking into account the amounts lost by sampling, and introduced with make-up D, a calculated 2 mass balance for 4 He in the gas phase after compositional and thermal cycling of the cathode results in a number that is 104 ± 10% of the number of atoms quantitatively correlated with the observed heat via reaction [1]. Reiterating the magnitude of the issue with the anomalously lost He-4, they state: pp. 6 When initially analyzed following a period of excess power production, the gas phase contained only 62% of the 4 He expected if reaction [1] were the source of the excess heat Finally they conclude that: pp. 8 Evidence for near-surface retention of 4 He in the lattice can be used to accommodate the discrepancy between measured and expected yields of 4 He. 25

26 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - VII MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - II Leakage from experimental vessels was rapidly (and correctly) ruled-out as an explanation for discrepancy Elimination of leakage left three remaining possibilities: 1. During experiments, Helium was being absorbed and/or adsorbed by one or more materials found inside the sealed vessels (including vessel walls); in order of physical abundance and exposed surface area, these materials included: Carbon (C charcoal), Palladium (Pd), and 316-series stainless steel (Fe, Cr, Ni, Mo, Mn) 2. If it were truly present above levels attributable to external contamination, He-4 4 is undeniably a product of nuclear processes. That being the case, perhaps other heat- and/or He-4-producing nuclear reactions besides D-D D fusion took place in their Case Pd/C/D experimental systems (not considered by McKubre et al.; no other nuclear ash besides He was assayed) 3. He-4 4 was actually being consumed as a reactant by other non-fusion nuclear reactions that transmuted it to some other element besides Helium (not considered by McKubre/Hagelstein et al.; only considered Item 1.) McKubre/Hagelstein Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, et January al.; only 4, 2007considered Item 1.) As to Hagelstein et al. s s discussion of the observed discrepancy four years later, please see their paper for the DOE cold fusion review panel (2004) cited on Slide #20; quoting directly from it: pp. 7 If helium were created in the cathode interior, then one might expect to see helium dissolved in the metal. If helium were produced near the surface, then perhaps it would show up in the surrounding gas. pp. 8 [following a paragraph discussing He-4 measurements of Miles & Bush, McKubre, and Gozzi] Several important conclusions can be drawn from the studies cited above amount of helium observed in the gas stream is generally within a factor of about 2 less than would be expected for a reaction mechanism consistent with D + D -> 4 He Helium is partly retained, and dissolved helium is released only slowly to the gas phase for analysis. pp. 9 [in Section 3.2 Reaction Q Value ] One can measure energy production, and assay for 4 He in the gas stream or the solid, with uncertainties introduced in the reaction energy Q because all of the helium produced may not be accounted for in the measurement. August September 10, ,

27 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - VIII MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - III With regard to the 1999 Pd/C/D Case replication experiments reviewed herein, please note it is Lattice s s considered opinion that McKubre et al. s s : Reported calorimetric measurements of excess heat production were probably accurate; Initially reported mass spectrometric assays of observed He-4 4 atoms were probably accurate; Conclusion that leakage and/or external contamination were not significant issues in the experimental results was probably correct; Belief that cold D-D D fusion was the only nuclear reaction that could possibly take place in their experiments was incorrect; and that their, Explanation for the discrepancy was incorrect. An erroneous cold fusion conceptual paradigm clearly influenced their experimental approach (e.g., did not bother to look for any other nuclear ash besides Helium isotopes) and hampered their ability to properly interpret numerous anomalies present Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 in their reported experimental results Continuing to quote from Hagelstein et al. s s discussion of the discrepancy in their paper for DOE panel (2004) cited on Slide #20; at this point, they are discussing an aqueous electrolytic experiment in LiOD that purportedly proves that 4 He is ad- or ab-sorbed on/in Pd and can be liberated into gas stream by exercising the LENR cathode with imposed deuterium fluxes: pp After making these measurements, an attempt was made to dislodge near surface 4He either thermally or by D atom motion by subjecting the cathode to a period of compositional cycling, while still sealed in the calorimeter. Square and sine wave modulations of varying period and amplitude were imposed on the DC (negative) potential at the Pd electrode in an attempt to flux deuterium atoms through the interface and thus act to dislodge near-surface ad- or absorbed 4 He atoms. At the end of this period, the potential was reversed to withdraw all deuterium atoms from the Pd bulk. No excess heat was observed during the periods of oscillation although calorimetric uncertainties were large due to the strong departures from the steady state that accompanied the pulsing. 27

28 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - IX MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - IV Please see excerpts of McKubre/Hagelstein et al. s explanation for the observed discrepancy in the right- hand columns on Slides # (this slide) Underlying logic behind their explanation is that: After Helium was produced in gas-phase Case Pd/C/D reaction cell, rather than virtually all of it being released almost immediately into the nearby gas, some significant portion of produced He-4 4 was sequestered in activated Carbon material (powder form with % Pd); it was ad- or ab-sorbed into Pd and/or Carbon (charcoal) and did not enter gas If significant % of produced He-4 4 is locked-up in materials inside reaction vessels, smaller numbers of He-4 4 atoms will be detected in samples analyzed in a mass spectrometer; effectively increases amount of calorimetrically measured heat (MeV) per detected He-4 atom, thus MeV/He-4 4 values artificially high To support their argument, SRI conducted yet another experiment that they claim proved He-4 4 was sequestered in Pd metal; that one involved very different-type Source type of Graphic: of aqueous Nature, 445, January Pd/LiOD 4, 2007electrolytic cell Continuing to quote from Hagelstein et al. s discussion of the discrepancy in their paper for DOE panel (2004) cited on Slide #20: pp. 10 Gas samples were taken before this procedure, again after purging the cell and refilling with D from 2 the gas bottle with 0.34 ppmv 4 He, and once more after cycling. The latter sample exhibited the highest concentration of 4 He measured in this cell, specifically 2.077± ppmv/v. By making a proper mass balance of the helium lost through sampling and purging, and that gained through make-up from the gas bottle, it is possible to assess with defined uncertainty the results of deuterium fluxing in freeing lightly trapped 4 He.. The final integral mass balance yielded a value of 104± 10% of the expected value if the excess power in Figure 5 is due to a reaction of the sort D+D 4 He MeV (heat) This value remains the most accurately determined in this field (in the sense that contributions from both the gas stream and the metal are included), but it suffers from the criticisms that the numbers of samples were few, and the largest value of 4 He measured was less than 50% of that in air Q value of 31 ± 13 and 32 ± 13 MeV per 4 He atom measured is also consistent with the reaction D+D 4He MeV (heat). Because of the importance of this result, it is discussed further in Appendix B. B 28

29 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - X MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - V Separate experiment designed to supposedly demonstrate release of bound Helium from Pd was conducted at SRI and involved a, Johnson Matthey Pd wire cathode 10 cm long and 1 mm diameter in 1.0 M LiOD containing 200 ppm Al. (from caption below Fig. 5 on pp. 6 of 2004 DOE Review paper) - very different from gas-phase Case Pd/C Bound Helium was to be released from the Pd wire by, subjecting the cathode to a period of compositional cycling, while still sealed in the calorimeter. Square and sine wave modulations of varying period and amplitude were imposed on the DC (negative) potential at the Pd electrode in an attempt to flux deuterium atoms through the interface and thus act to dislodge near-surface ad- or absorbed 4He atoms. At the end of this period, the potential was reversed to withdraw all deuterium atoms from the Pd. (pp. 9 of 2004 DOE Review paper see Slide #27) main goal of this procedure was to significantly accelerate D+ ion flux thru the Pd surface region Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Continuing to quote from Hagelstein et al. s s paper for DOE panel (2004); this excerpt is from Section 2.6 titled Deuterium Flux and Triggering Issues : pp. 6 The excess heat effect is often observed to be stimulated by changes in the experimental conditions Bockris described a regimen in which the current periodically changed direction... Quantitative evidence indicating that deuterium flux plays an important role in determining the excess heat in a Fleischmann-Pons cell was found at SRI But experiments seem to show that deuterium flux makes a difference, independent of whether it is incoming, outgoing, axial, or traversing. By their own words quoted above, they admit that in LENRs, enhanced Deuterium flux is very important to triggering production of excess heat and He-4. That being the case, couldn t t more new He-4 4 be produced by precisely the procedure they are describing to the left that is supposedly designed to dislodge old bound Helium atoms? If excess heat were produced during that procedure, any detected He-4 4 could not be unequivocally attributed solely to the release of bound old He-4 4 because it could just as easily have been atoms of newly produced He-4. Conveniently they say: pp. 10 No excess heat was observed during the periods of oscillation although calorimetric uncertainties were large due to the strong departures from the steady state that accompanied the pulsing. [caveat re calorimetry errors] 29

30 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XI MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - VI Validity of SRI experiment claimed to demonstrate release of bound He-4 4 from Pd wire cathode is very dubious; it doesn t t prove anything. Since they were unable to unequivocally state that excess heat was not produced during D + fluxing procedure, there is simply no way to determine whether He-4 4 detected at that point was newly produced or old (bound) Other aspects of McKubre/Hagelstein et al. s s claim that large amounts of produced He-4 4 were somehow sequestered in Pd metal/carbon in the Case Pd/C/D experiments are also questionable. For example, it is well known and accepted in published literature that the solubility of Helium in metals is extremely low According to W-L W L theory of LENRs, He-4 4 atoms should be produced on or very near the surface of Pd. If that were true, given He-4 4 solubility is very low, why would He-4 4 go deeply into Pd metal when it is much easier for He atoms to simply enter D 2 gas? Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Effects of Radiation on Materials: 15 th International Symposium, Stoller,, Kumar, and Gelles,, eds., ASTM International (1992): pp. 875 The extremely low solubility of helium in metals is responsible for its strong tendency to precipitate into bubbles which leads to degradation of the mechanical properties of materials. As to LENRs being mostly a surface effect, W-L W theory is supported by a large body of excellent experimental evidence, e.g., in D permeation 2 experiments similar to Case set-up, TOF-SIMS depth profile studies by Iwamura et al. in R&D at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan, clearly showed that all transmutation products were found in a zone limited to within ~500 Angstroms of the surface (~ 200 atomic layers) - see: Low energy nuclear transmutation in condensed matter induced by D 2 gas permeation through Pd complexes: correlation between deuterium flux and nuclear products, Iwamura et al., pp in Condensed Matter Nuclear Science Proceedings of 10 th International Conference on Cold Fusion,, P. Hagelstein and S. Chubb, eds., World Scientific Publishing 2006 See Fig. 9 on pp. 7 in free online version at: canr.org/acrobat/iwamuraylowenergyn.pdf 30

31 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XII MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - VII Solubility of He-4 4 in activated Carbon material (charcoal) is also known to be very low; this is evidenced by the fact that Praxair uses it commercially for purification of helium gas streams. Why should He sequester in Carbon in McKubre et al. s s Case Pd/C/D experiments? One remaining possibility is that He-4 4 atoms (α( particles) could have had sufficient kinetic energy such that those emitted downward into the bulk substrate were implanted in the material; if such alphas were extremely energetic, implantation could be significant. However, the particular experiment in which McKubre et al. claimed demonstration of sequestered He-4 4 release was a LiOD Pd wire electrolytic system. According to W-L W L theory of LENRs, He-4 4 production in such systems likely arises primarily from decay of Be-8. Q-value Q for that α-decay is kev (~46 kev/he-4). According Source of Graphic: to graph, Nature, He-4 445, January 4 penetration 4, 2007 depth at such low energies would be limited in Pd or C Quoting directly from the http// website under the heading Helium: Production : Cryogenic system - Here, crude helium is compressed and cooled before nitrogen is condensed and removed. The helium gas then passes through activated charcoal for final purification. He-4 4 (alpha) penetration depth versus particle energy: 1 MeV Gold ~46keV Carbon Beryllium 31

32 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XIII MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - VIII In ion implantation study to right, ~100% of the He-3 beam ions will impact ~normal to the surface, insuring maximum penetration depth in the material. In an LENR experiment, at most ~50% of He-4 4 (α)( particles would be emitted downward into substrate; most of such emitted particles would traverse the material at angles << 90 o As noted in Slide #30, He-4 4 has extremely low solubility in metals, diffuses mostly along grain boundaries, and tends to aggressively form bubbles or voids, which reduces materials mechanical strength and promotes breakup under thermomechanical stress Please see Lattice Energy LLC Technical Overview dated June 25, 2009: esp. text and SEM images in Slides # 59, 69, and 72 Thermomechanical ablation, reworking of surface structures, and removal of material in or near ~ o K nuclear-active active LENR hot spots is substantial; unlike He-3 3 implant study at right, LENR surfaces are very dynamic, rapidly changing nanoenvironments In LENRs, intense near-surface thermomechanical activity would tend to open-up voids in material and attack grain boundaries, thus rapidly releasing any nearby implanted He; residence-time for any implanted He would probably be measured in minutes or hours perhaps a day certainly not days or weeks. This is very likely why Gozzi was unable to detect any occluded He-4 4 at the detection limit when entire Pd cathode was melted and analyzed post-experiment Maximum penetration depth for implanted 30 kev He + ions in W is 730 nm (.73 μm) note that average depth of LENR craters in Pd/Ag surface is much larger than that Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Post-LENR experiment: SEM image of Pd/Ag surface structures (Zhang-Dash) He is found in voids Figure 1: (a) coral structure and (b) subsurface pore penetration in nano-grain tungsten implanted to He+/m 2 at 1000 C Source: Book of Abstracts -12th International Workshop on Plasma- Facing Materials and Components for Fusion Applications, Jülich, Germany, May 2009, P 75 Retention and Surface Pore Formation in Helium-Implanted Nano-Grain Tungsten for Fusion Reactor First-Wall Materials and Divertor Plates S.J. Zenobiaa and G.L. Kulcinskia The divertor area for plates in Magnetic Fusion Energy reactors and the first-wall armor for chambers in Inertial Confinement Fusion reactors must withstand high temperatures and significant radiation damage from D-T plasmas. Nano-grain W combines the high melting point and low sputtering coefficient of W with a nano-scale grain structure, making it an attractive material for these applications. Helium retention and surface morphology change were studied as a function of dose and at high temperature, to simulate most accurately the environment of a fusion reactor. Nano-grain W samples were implanted with 30 kev 3 He ions to fluences of 10 13, and He/m 2, at temperatures ranging from approximately 1000 to 1150º C. One specimen was implanted with 30 kev 4 He ions at 1000 C to He/m 2. Specimens implanted with 3 He+ were analyzed using 3 He(d,p) 4 He nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) to determine helium retention characteristics. Surface and subsurface pore formation was observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and focused ion beam (FIB) milling. Physical mass losses from samples were determined using a microbalance to estimate surface erosion. The onset of surface pore formation occurred between approximately to He + /m 2, indicating an enhanced threshold for pore formation from that of standard polycrystalline W. [1,2] SEM analysis showed increasing pore formation with higher implant fluences, eventually resulting in a corallike surface structure (Figure 1a.). FIB analysis revealed the subsurface penetration depth of the pores also increased with increasing implant dose. Pores were observed up to approximately 730 nm below the surface of the nano-grain W (Figure 1b.). NRA yielded a retained helium fluence ranging from 4.0x10 12 to 4.5x10 13 He/m 2 for samples implanted with 3 He. Each specimen sustained mass loss [via surface ablation] after implantation, which was also observed to increase with increased He + dose. [1] S.J. Zenobia and G.L. Kulcinski, Tech. Fusion Energy submitted for publication Sept [2] R.F. Radel and G.L. Kulcinski, J. Nucl. Mater (1), 434 (2007) 32

33 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XIV MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s replication of Case experiments - VIII It thus appears unlikely that substantial He-4 4 was somehow bound/sequestered in Pd and C in SRI s Case Pd/C/D replication experiments. That being the case, perhaps there is another possibility worth considering: to wit, that McKubre et al. s original measurements of MeV/He-4 were in fact reasonably accurate and correctly measured. In particular, what if nuclear processes other than cold D-D D fusion reactions produced the excess heat and Helium-4 4 observed and measured in McKubre et al. s s Case Pd/C/D experiments? If so, exactly what were the other reactions and how well do their predicted products and Q-value Q energetics (heat) match-up with parameters that were actually measured during the experiments? Let us now turn to the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs to see whether it can help shed some light on these unresolved issues and anomalies Note EPJC paper and LENR Lithium cycle to right Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 See: A. Widom and L. Larsen, Ultra low momentum neutron catalyzed nuclear reactions on metallic hydride surfaces, European Physical Journal C Particles and Fields 46 pp (2006) Note ULMN-catalyzed LENR Lithium network cycle from Eqs in W-L W L 2006 EPJC paper as follows: Begin Return cycle 6 Li + n 7 Li Li + n 8 Li β Li 8 Be + e - + υ 3 4 e Q v ~16 MeV 8 α Be 4 He + 4 He 4 Q v ~92 kev He + n 5 He He + n 6 He β He 6 Li + e - + υ 2 3 e ULM neutron captures on Lithium 8 Li β-decay is largest single energy release in Li cycle Low energy α-decay He is a reactant in this region; captures neutrons End 33

34 Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Lattice Energy LLC 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XV Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s experiments - I We will now utilize W-L W L to help understand anomalies in MeV/He-4 4 measurements: Assumptions: 1.McKubre et al. s s calorimetric measurements of excess heat and mass spectroscopy of gas samples He-4 4 are correct 2.Branching ratios for beta-delayed alpha delays can be significantly different in LENR condensed matter systems in comparison to measurements on fragments in RNB colliders (see discussion of this issue in Slides # 6, 7, 8, and 14) 3.ULM neutron-catalyzed Carbon cycles can occur in Case Pd/C/D 2 LENR systems (see Slides # 11, 12, 14, 16, and 18) Experiments: Case Pd/C/D 2 System Type: D 2 gas-phase permeation (no current) Purpose: measure excess heat and a He-4 Measured value(s): 31 and 32 MeV/He-4 both +/-13 MeV (avg. 31.5) Internal reference: Slides #22, 24, 25 - Item 1 D-D cold fusion predicts: 23.8 MeV/He-4 (per McKubre et al.) Difference (obs( obs.. vs. pred.): 7.7 MeV/He-4 4 (+ 24.4% vs. 31.5) W-L L theory predicts: ~31.2 MeV/He-4 Internal reference: Slides #11 and 16 (lower-energy energy LENR Carbon cycles) Difference (obs( obs.. vs. pred.) 0.3 MeV/He-4 4 (+ 1.0% vs. 31.5) Comment: : W-L s W s prediction has a closer match between theory and experiment 34

35 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XVI Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s experiments - II Refer to Slides #11-12: 12: LENR nucleosynthetic network beginning with ULMN capture on stable Carbon seeds based on applying W-L W L theory Assuming W-L W L theory ULMN captures on Carbon, McKubre at al. s s experimental data suggests that: ULM neutron fluxes in Case Pd/C/D 2 gas-phase (no current) system were apparently not high enough to get beyond C-18; C network seems to have spent most of its time in the parameter space of five possible lower-q v carbon cycles which together have an average Q-value Q (heat) per He-4 4 of ~31.2 MeV/He-4 4 (Slide #16 sidebar) ULMN fluxes apparently were not high enough for network to produce significant quantities of nuclear transmutation products on higher-a side of the Fluorine valley of death (Slide #17) It is not necessary to invoke D-D D cold fusion and dubious assumptions about He-4 4 being sequestered in Pd or C to explain this data sequestered Source of Graphic: in Pd Nature, or C 445, to January explain 4, 2007this data Science journalist Steven Krivit s e-zine, New Energy Times (NET) has published a number of investigative articles about what Krivit calls the 24 MeV belief that is still prevalent among many members of the cold fusion community In NET Issue #30, October 14, 2008, please see Sections #16 ( Discussing( the 24 MeV Belief with Peter Hagelstein ) ) through #22 ( Discussing( the 24 MeV Belief with Melvin Miles ) pp in both html and downloadable pdf versions at: T30-jgk39gh12f.shtml T30-jgk39gh12f.pdf A direct quote from Krivit (SK) is as follows: (while interviewing Prof. Hagelstein) : SK: Many people in this field have been under the impression that the Q from the Fleischmann-Pons Pd/D experiment is 24 MeV, unconditionally. But this is not fact; as you said, it is belief. The fact is that half a dozen experiments have shown a Q within a factor of two of 24 MeV. Many people within the field, even the leaders of the most recent conference, have stated publicly that the Q is 24 MeV, unconditionally. 35

36 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XVII Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s experiments - III Only small fraction of limited number of LENR experiments that actually measured MeV/He-4 had observed values that were with +/- 20% of cold D-D D fusion s s prediction of 23.8 MeV; for example, see (source: New Energy Times #30): SRI International: 31, 38.34, 34.45, U.S. Navy - China Lake: 39, 25,, 44, 88, 83, 52, 62 ENEA - Frascati,, Italy: 103, 88, 124, 103, 103 ENEA reported at ICCF-12: 27.2,, 31.7, 38.1 He-4 4 sequestration hypothesis was promoted by McKubre/Hagelstein et al. to explain the large range and variance in MeV/He-4 4 measurements Question: : if He-4 4 sequestration in Pd and/or C is erroneous, then what can explain wide variance? Answer: : these results are consistent with a wide variety of nuclear reactions that may occur in parallel in complex, time-varying nucleosynthetic Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 networks; some paths produce 4 He, some do not Continuing selected quotes from NET Issue #30, October 14, 2008 (see source URLs on Slide #35) Quoting further from SK s s Hagelstein interview: SK: Peter [Hagelstein], you wrote to me that, "at one of the early ICCF conferences,... Gozzi proposed that only a part of the He-4 4 was making it to the gas stream. You said, The idea was that the excess heat was produced near the surface but at different distances from the surface in different bursts, so that more or less of the He- 4 would make it to the surface." SK: I I have been aware that McKubre has been proposing that only a part of the He-4 4 is making it to the gas stream and that the remaining He-4 4 is being retained in the bulk, but I had not been aware that Gozzi was proposing this, also. SK: I I responded to your comment by contacting Danielle Gozzi.. He said your statement is wrong. Since He-4 4 was found only in the gas phase, Gozzi wrote, we are obliged to state that it was generated on the surface or, maybe, in the layers just below the surface. SK: Gozzi also provided his Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry paper and said that In his paper, Gozzi also states that he melted the [Pd] cathode and found no He- 4 in the material at the detection limit. Thus, Gozzi does not concur with Hagelstein and McKubre s theorized sequestration of He-4 4 in Pd 36

37 1999: SRI replication of Case/D 2 gas by McKubre et al. - XVIII Widom-Larsen theory explains MeV/He-4 discrepancy in SRI s experiments - IV Let us revisit the unexplained anomaly of declines in He-4 concentrations in analyzed gas samples that were clearly observed in experiments SC2 and SC4.2 (please see Fig. 12 in Slide #23 and Item 2 in Slide #25) McKubre/Hagelstein et al. correctly ruled-out some sort of vessel leakage as the source of this particular anomaly McKubre/Hagelstein et al. then proposed that ad- or ab- sorption in Pd and/or C was responsible for decline; we have shown how that explanation appears to be incorrect (see Slides # 28 32; 34-35); 35); so, what caused He-4 4 decline? Answer: : see McKubre et al. s s Fig anomalous declines only began after He-4 4 concentration in D 2 gas had exceeded 9 ppm beyond Day 15 of experiments. Based on W-L W L theory of LENRs, one could speculate that He-4 4 concentration in vessel gas could have finally gotten high enough so that He-4 4 atoms were more frequently hitting LENR-active sites, capturing ULM neutrons, and being transmuted into Lithium via reaction paths to right. Like LENR carbon cycles, Li cycle is also leaky - i.e., nuclei can escape from it into Source regions of Graphic: of higher-a Nature, 445, A isotopes January 4, 2007 Return cycle LENR Lithium Cycle 6 Li + n 7 Li Li + n 8 Li β Li 8 Be + e - + υ 3 4 e 8 α Be 4 He + 4 He He + n 5 He He + n 6 He β He 6 Li + e - + υ 2 3 e ULM neutron captures on Lithium Escape could occur right here Low energy α- decay He is a reactant in this region; captures neutrons There are different LENR nucleosynthetic pathways that could serve as potential escape routes from Li cycle here is but one of them: 8 Li + n 9 Li β 9 Be (stable)

38 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Review and discussion of LENR experiments - II Primarily non-metallic Carbon substrates hosting nuclear-active active sites 1994: Texas A&M carbon-arc/h arc/h 2 O; Bockris and Sundaresan 38

39 1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - I Sundaresan & Bockris decide to repeat Oshawa s 1965 experiments Employing somewhat strange scientific logic, in mid-1960s a little-known Japanese scientist by the name of George Oshawa conducted a series of experiments with electric arcs between pure carbon rods immersed in ordinary water in which he claimed to have transmuted Carbon (C) into Iron (Fe). Unable to explain the seemingly bizarre experimental results, he could not get his paper accepted by any refereed journal and was forced to publish it indirectly in a rather obscure venue Oshawa s work was essentially forgotten until ca , 1993, when John Bockris, a well-known electrochemist and Professor of Chemistry at Texas A&M University, and R. Sundaresan, then a visiting scientist at Texas A&M from the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) in India, became aware of it. They decided to collaborate and repeat the carbon-arc arc transmutation experiments Reference Source to of Graphic: Oshawa s Nature, 445, 1965 January paper 4, 2007is to right George Oshawa s Transmutation Experiments, East-West Institute Magazine (March 1965) Citing Oshawa,, Sundaresan and Bockris ultimately published their experimental results in a refereed publication of the American Nuclear Society (ANS) please see: Anomalous reactions during arcing between carbon rods in water, R. Sundaresan and J. O M. O Bockris, Fusion Technology 26 pp Note: : this journal has since changed its name to Fusion Science and Technology Around that time, Bockris became embroiled in the huge, still ongoing controversy surrounding cold fusion and work in the area that he was pursuing at Texas A&M. He relates the tangled tale of that saga in a general science article: J. O M. O Bockris, Accountability and academic freedom the battle concerning research on cold fusion at Texas A&M University, Accountability in Research 8 pp It can be found online at: canr.org/acrobat/bockrisjaccountabi.pdf 39

40 1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - II Texas A&M repeated Oshawa s work measured Fe transmutation product Details of Sundaresan & Bockris 14 experiments were published in Fusion Technology paper cited on previous slide Took extraordinary care to assay, control, and understand initial composition of materials inside the experimental apparatus, particularly with respect to presence of any Fe impurities or other contaminants: e.g., used 6.14 mm diameter 30 cm long Johnson- Matthey AGKSP grade, ultra F purity Carbon rods (Fe impurities verified as 2.03 ppm); started-out with distilled tap water with Fe content of 20 ppb, then purified it even further by passing it thru t Millipore-Q Q ion-exchange columns until resistivity was 13 MΩ then purified it even further; ; vessel containing water and C rods was Pyrex glass (see composition to right) trough vessel, etc. Experimental set-up was straightforward: apparatus consisted of two J-M M Carbon (graphite) rods immersed in ordinary water (H 2 O). Next, a DC electric current (depending on the experiment, ranging from A at 10 V) was turned-on and periodically arced between cathode and the anode for 1 10 hours. During course of each experiment rod positions were periodically adjusted; arcing was occasionally stopped for a time to allow water to cool-down. At end of an experiment, power was turned-off. Carbon debris lying on the bottom of Pyrex trough was then collected, dried, and analyzed for the presence of Fe by a spectrophotometric method Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Texas A&M Experimental Apparatus Source: 1994 Fusion Technology paper Composition of Pyrex Glass Source: NIST physics.nist.gov Atomic number Fraction by weight 5- Boron-B Oxygen-O Sodium-Na Aluminum-Al Silicon-Si Potassium-K

41 1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - III Table IV - extracted from 1994 Fusion Technology Paper Note: : apologies for tilting of the image Source : Anomalous reactions during arcing between carbon rods in water, R. Sundaresan and J. O M. O Bockris, Fusion Technology pp

42 1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - IV Discussion and comments on results of Texas A&M experiments - I No Fe in Pyrex vessel walls. Only possible sources of Fe contamination nation were from ultrapure C rods, ultrapure H 2 O, and/or laboratory air (very unlikely): from a material science standpoint, experiments were very well characterized. rized. Possibility of any rogue Fe contamination was minimized as much as possible Sundaresan & Bockris estimated that the total initial pre-experiment experiment quantity of Fe contained in each ultrapure Carbon rod ranged from μg Of the total of 14 experiments conducted, some of their reported results were much more conclusive than others In particular, please see Table IV from their paper (shown in previous slide): Electrode 2 quantity of Iron found in Carbon detritus after 3 hrs measured 22.8 μg; ; Electrode 3 quantity of Iron found after 10 hrs measured 39.9 μg Majority of both carbon rods remained fully intact at the conclusion of every experiment. For the quantity of Fe observed in C detritus at those times in these two particular experiments to be result of Fe migration from rods rather than being a nuclear transmutation product would require that most if not all of the pre-experiment experiment Iron contained in one or both rods must have somehow diffused and migrated out thru rod tips to end-up in detritus found at the bottom of the Pyrex Source vessel; of Graphic: by Nature, any 445, reasonable January 4, 2007 standard, such an event would appear pear unlikely 42

43 1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - V Discussion and comments on results of Texas A&M s experiments - II Hoping to explain the Fe transmutation anomaly that had been observed in their experiments, Sundaresan & Bockris speculated that some type e of nuclear fusion reaction had occurred, to wit: 2 6 C O 18 Fe He Fe Under the experimental conditions found in high-current carbon arcs, fusion reactions between Carbon and Oxygen nuclei as shown in above equation are highly improbable; such heavy ions have even higher Coulomb barriers than D-D D D or D-T D T fusion reactions. Their explanation for the observed nuclear process was, in the context of W-L W L theory, incorrect In Section IV. Discussion on pages , 265, S&B discussed possibility that they had probably observed nuclear heat production in the form of an excessive increase in measured temperature of water in Pyrex reaction vessel during experiments. Unfortunately, their quantitative measurements of input energy and related ongoing heat production during experiments were relatively crude and incomplete. That being the case, Sundaresan & Bockris discussion of energetics was highly speculative and not at all quantitatively definitive with regard to elucidating potential reaction r mechanisms and nucleosynthetic pathways. Nonetheless, if their observed o Fe was truly a transmutation product, there is little doubt that significant amounts Source of Graphic: of excess Nature, 445, heat January were 4, 2007 produced during the carbon-arc arc experiments 43

44 1994: Texas A&M experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - VI Final comments on results of Texas A&M s experiments - III Conclusion : it appears likely that Fe was produced as a nuclear transmutation product arising from Carbon seed nuclei that were present at the beginning of Sundaresan & Bockris carbon-arc arc experiments with well-characterized materials Tip-off that W-L W L theoretical mechanism was involved: following Oshawa,, S&B verified that anomalous Fe production did not occur when liquid H 2 O was replaced with Nitrogen gas. Believing that the nuclear process in carbon-arcs arcs was C-O C O fusion, they thought absence of Oxygen had prevented fusion reactions; Sundaresan & Bockris did d not realize what was really needed were the protons found in water (e + p n n + υ) Difference: unlike previously discussed Case Pd/C/D replications conducted at SRI by McKubre et al., neither Palladium (Pd) nor any other noble metal was present in significant quantities in S&B s experimental system; appreciable amounts of Deuterium (D) were also absent from the Texas A&M carbon-arc arc H 2 O experiments Key questions: was a higher-a A extension of the carbon-seed LENR ULMN-catalyzed nucleosynthetic network shown in Slides # also operating in S&B s carbon-arc arc experimental system? Can the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs explain anomalous Fe production that occurs in carbon-arc arc light water experiments --- if so, exactly how? Answer: yes to all - in the next section we will discuss very similar experiments that were conducted at BARC (India) at around the same time (importantly, they obtained the same results as S&B) and illustrate one of a large number of possible LENR ULMN-driven nucleosynthetic pathways that can explain the observed Fe and other transmutation products Source of comfortably Graphic: Nature, 445, within January the 4, 2007 overall framework of W-L W L theory 44

45 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Review and discussion of LENR experiments - III Primarily non-metallic Carbon substrates hosting nuclear-active active sites 1994: BARC carbon-arc/h arc/h 2 O; Singh et al. 45

46 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - I BARC (India) conducts experiments very similar to those at Texas A&M Details of Singh et al. s s experiments were published in 1994 Fusion Technology paper cited to right Like S&B, also took great care to assay, control, and try to understand the initial composition of materials inside their experimental apparatus, especially with respect to presence of any Fe impurities or other contaminants: e.g., used 6.0 mm dia., 30 cm long Ultra Carbon Corporation ultra-high high-purity Carbon rods (Fe impurities certified at < 2 ppm); also used ultrapure deionized water (H 2 O) in experiments DC electric current (depending on experiment, ranged from 10 A up to 28 A at V) was turned- on and periodically arced between cathode and the anode for total arcing times of hours. During each experiment rod positions were adjusted; arcing was occasionally stopped for a time to allow water bath cool-down. At the end of an experiment, power was turned-off. Carbon debris lying on the bottom of Pyrex trough was collected, dried, and analyzed for presence of Fe by a spectrographic method Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 References: Verification of the George Oshawa experiment for anomalous production of iron from Carbon arc in water, M. Singh, M. Saksena,, V. Dixit,, and V. Kartha, Fusion Technology 26 pp Note: : this refereed ANS journal has since changed its name to Fusion Science and Technology BARC is an acronym for the famous Bhabha Atomic Research Center in Bombay, India; it is a government nuclear laboratory akin to a cross between Los Alamos and Sandia in the US. For more information, please see Wikipedia article: ch_centre From 1989 through ca.1995 when all Indian R&D in LENRs was deliberately stopped, BARC scientists had reported many interesting results. Much of the early BARC work thru late 1989 can be found in: BARC Studies in Cold Fusion, P.K. Iyengar and M. Srinivsan,, eds., Gov t of India, Atomic Energy Commission, December 1989 (153 pages 30 MB) Which can be downloaded online from NET at: ARC1500Report/1500.shtml August September 10, ,

47 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - II Abstract and Fig. 1 from paper by Singh et al. in Fusion Technology 26 (1994) Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 267 (1994) Please note similarity with carbon-arc arc apparatus used by Sundaresan and Bockris as shown in Slide #40 Source of Source: Graphic: Fusion Nature, Technology 445, January 26 pp. 4, (1994) 47

48 Lattice Energy LLC 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H2O - III Table I from paper by Singh et al. in Fusion Technology 26 (1994) Note: Note: apologies for tilting of the image Source: Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 268 (1994) Copyright 2009 Lattice Energy LLC All Rights Reserved 48

49 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - IV Table III from paper by Singh et al. in Fusion Technology 26 (1994) Note: : apologies for tilting of the image Composition of Pyrex Glass Source: NIST physics.nist.gov Atomic number Fraction by weight 5- Boron-B Oxygen-O Sodium-Na Aluminum-Al Source 14-Silicon-Si of Graphic: Nature, , January 4, Potassium-K Source: Fusion Technology 26 pp. 270 (1994) Please note: : Experiments #1 3 used demineralized rather than deionized H 2 O (see previous Slide). Reaction vessel is composed of Pyrex glass, which does contain Boron, Oxygen, Sodium, Aluminum, Silicon, and Potassium. However, Pyrex does not contain Nickel or Chromium, nor are those elements present in appreciable quantities in the carbon rods, demineralized or deionized water, or air prior to the beginning of the carbon-arc arc experiments of Singh et al. 49

50 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - V Discussion of Singh et al. s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - I In their experimental procedures, Singh et al. also took extraordinary precautions to try to eliminate and/or control potential sources of elemental contamination that could create false positives in their assays for presence of potential LENR transmutation products Please see Table III shown on the previous slide. Note that under the stated experimental conditions, from a chemical reactivity perspective it is unlikely that significant amounts of Boron, Oxygen, Sodium, Silicon, Aluminum, and/or Potassium leached-out of the Pyrex glass into the water and were then subsequently ad/absorbed into the Carbon detritus that collected at bottom of the reaction vessel. For the moment, let us simply put those elements aside in deference to the most die-hard skeptics of LENRs. However, what remains are Nickel and Chromium - in significant quantities no less At the beginning of their experiments, there was no appreciable Ni and/or Cr present in the Carbon rods, water, Pyrex vessel, or in the laboratory air. Unless their spectrographic analyses were erroneous, only remaining possibility is that Ni and Cr were transmutation products Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 No phenomenon is a real phenomenon until it is an observed phenomenon. If you haven't found something strange during the day, it hasn't been much of a day. John Wheeler, coined term black hole in 1967 "These are very deep waters." Sherlock Holmes, The Adventure of the Speckled Band (1892) "It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts." Sherlock Holmes, A A Scandal in Bohemia (1891) There is nothing as deceptive as an obvious fact. Sherlock Holmes, The Boscombe Valley Mystery, (1891) Facts do not cease to exist because they are ignored. Aldous Huxley, Proper Studies (1927) when you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth. Sherlock Holmes, The Sign of the Four, (1890) August September 10, ,

51 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - VI Discussion of Singh et al. s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - II While production of Ni and Cr appear to constitute harder-to to-argue-with scientific evidence for the occurrence of nuclear transmutations, Fe mass balances b observed and measured in Singh et al. s s BARC experiments also support the conclusion Please see data in Table I on Slide #48. Their analysis of experimental data (pp. 269) was as follows: each ultrapure Carbon rod had a measured mass in grams at the start of a given experiment. Column 5 in Table I, Amount of Carbon Consumed (g) is a C rod s initial mass minus its carefully measured mass at the end of an experiment. The mass of carbonaceous material collected as particulate debris found at the t bottom of the Pyrex reaction vessel at end of an experiment is shown in column 6, Carbon Residue Collected (mg). In column 7, Carbon collected (%),, the mass of carbon residue divided by the mass of carbon consumed is expressed as a %. Results of the spectrographic analysis of the collected residue with respect to Fe concentration expressed in parts per million (ppm) are shown in column 8, Iron Concentration in Residue (ppm). The total mass of Fe impurities estimated to be present in the entire volume of water in the vessel (see footnotes d and e in Table III) and the total mass of Fe estimated ed to be present as an impurity in the entire portion of a carbon rod that was consumed during an experiment (column 5) are shown in column 9, Iron Content in Blank (μg)( ) Water/Carbon. Subtracting the total mass of Fe impurities estimated in column 9 from the total mass of Fe measured spectrographically in the residue (column 8) allowed them to calculate the total mass of anomalous Iron produced in an experiment in column 10, Excess Iron Content in Residue (μg).( ). Lastly, column 10 shows the, Excess iron in Residue per Gram of Carbon Consumed (ppm) Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 August September 10, ,

52 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - VII Discussion of Singh et al. s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - III Estimates of excess iron content found in carbonaceous debris that were produced during BARC experiments would appear to be relatively conservative (column 10 in Table I on pp. 268 of Singh h et al. s Fusion Technology paper). That being the case, unless there were incredibly large systematic errors in measurements of masses, s, it is hard to imagine anything other than nuclear transmutations that could possibly have produced the observed experimental data In the case of BARC experiments # 1 3, production of anomalous excess iron occurred in parallel with production of significant amounts of anomalous Ni and Cr, neither of which were present in any materials within the apparatus at the beginning of experiments. By any reasonable standard, simultaneous production of all three anomalous elemental products within less than six hours of arcing g in apparatus containing compositionally well-characterized materials appears to be strong experimental evidence for operation of LENR nucleosynthetic transmutation pathways, to wit: CCrFeNi Since some experiments were not covered,, could atmospheric dust have somehow contaminated the water in the Pyrex vessel and thus produced all of these anomalous results? Maybe, but that idea stretches Source reason of Graphic: even Nature, further 445, January than 4, 2007 the possibility of transmutations Ultrapure carbon rods: Carbon/graphite rods virtually identical to those used in these experiments are still readily available for interested LENR experimentalists Ted Pella, Inc. of Redding, CA has them available for sale on its company website at: on_html/carbon1.htm Their physical characteristics are as follows: Density: 2.2 gm cm -3 Melting Point: around 3550 C Evaporation Temp.: 2400 C "Spec-pure pure : (spectroscopically pure) grade is available for carbon (graphite) rods with impurities equal or less than 2ppm (single element 1 ppm or less) Prod. # 61 15: Carbon Rods, Grade 1 Spec-Pure, 1/4" x 12" (6.2 x 304 mm) pkg/12 $54.30 August September 10, ,

53 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - VIII Discussion of Singh et al. s carbon-arc experiments at BARC - IV Experimental error : Singh et al. estimated the experimental error in their spectrographic raphic measurements of ppm concentrations of detected elements (e.g., Fe) F for which they had standards and calibration curves as +/- 15% to 20%. In the case of experiments #1 - #4 (Table I - Fe concentration in carbon debris residue in ppm: 2000, 1000, 2000, and 450, respectively) ppm concentrations of Fe were large enough so that even a worst-case 20% measurement error would not alter the conclusion that anomalous Fe had been observed Mass spectroscopy analysis of anomalous iron: In Table II on pp. 269 Singh et al. show results of mass spectroscopic analysis of Fe isotopes in the anomalous iron found in carbonaceous particulate debris at the bottom of the Pyrex reaction vessel. Observed O Fe isotope ratios shown in Table II were unremarkable in that they did not differ significantly ntly from natural terrestrial abundances. In context of ULM neutron-catalyzed LENRs a la W-L W L theory, this result is not surprising. Fe s s natural abundance values are end-result of a composite of several episodes of neutron-catalyzed r-/s-process nucleosynthesis occurring over billions of years; they reflect Nature s optimization of element nucleosynthesis. A priori, why should LENRs be different? Irrefutable fact: prosaic chemical processes cannot produce nuclear transmutations in any type of closed experimental system; elements previously absent do not just suddenly appear Conclusion: again, as the fictional Sherlock Holmes said, When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth. uth. Based on our reanalysis of their data in the context of the W-L W L theory of LENRs, the most reasonable explanation is that both Sundaresan & Bockris and Singh et al. probably observed LENR nuclear transmutations in their ca carbon-arc Source of arc Graphic: experiments Nature, 445, January at Texas 4, 2007 A&M and BARC August September 10, ,

54 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - IX BARC/Texas A&M transmutation results in light of W-L theory of LENRs We will now apply W-L W L theory to help shed some light on the experimental transmutation results of Bockris & Sundaresan and Singh et al. First, we will sketch-out a W-L W L LENR ULM neutron-catalyzed nucleosynthetic network pathway that could produce the observed transmutation products from f C-seed C nuclei Please note that this W-L-based W theoretical path illustrates only one of a multitude of energetically viable potential pathways that could produce the observed o carbon-arc arc transmutation product results; uncovering all the fine details of everything that may have really happened in the experiments would require exhaustive assays and isotopic analyses of all detectable nuclear products as well as computerized network codes that can mimic reaction dynamics of an LENR network as it evolves over r time. Unfortunately, neither the detailed data nor the computer codes are presently available a to assist us Nonetheless, it is hoped that this illustrative model network pathway will demonstrate the plausibility of producing the observed transmutation products in the amount of reaction time available under experimental conditions that occur in H 2 O carbon-arcs arcs Last, we will propose a new hypothesis to answer a question posed d on Slide #44: in the absence of hydride-forming metals such as Pd or Ti inside the carbon-arc arc apparatus, can the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs still explain the observed experimental results? r Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4,

55 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - X LENR nucleosynthetic pathway from Carbon to Iron begins with C-20 C Note: this illustrative model path begins at C-20 in carbon-seed LENR network shown on Slide #12 6 C-20 HL= 16 msec 15.8 β- 7 N-20 HL=130 msec 18.0 β- 8 O-20 HL= 13.5 sec F Ne Ne Na β- HL= 11.2 sec β- Stable 90.5% +3n HL= 37.2 sec β- Stable 100% +14n 11 Na-37 HL= 1 msec 26 β Mg Al Si P S Cl Cl Ar β- HL=40 msec β- HL=20 msec β- HL=90 msec β- HL= 2.3 sec β- HL=5.1 min β- Stable 24.2% +7n HL=560 msec β- HL=11.9 min β K Ca Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn β- HL=22.1 min β- Stable 2.1% +12n HL=10 msec β- HL= 80 msec β- HL=164 msec β- HL=216 msec β- HL=5.9 min β- HL=2.6 hrs β- 3.7 β- 26 Fe-56 Stable 91.8% n 26 Fe-62 HL=1.1 min Co β- HL=1.5 min β- 28 Ni-62 Stable 3.6% Network can continue Note large size of Q-values Q for β - decays of: N-20 N (18 MeV), Na-37 (26 MeV), Mg-37 (19.3 MeV), and Al-37 (16.5 MeV) Legend: All reactions proceed from left to right; Q-value Q for a given reaction or for a group of neutron captures is in MeV and is located on top of the blue or green horizontal arrows Beta decays are denoted with a dark blue horizontal arrow; ULM neutron n captures are denoted with dark green horizontal arrow if more than one ULM neutron is captured, the total number of neutrons being captured by the isotope is indicated below the green arrow Stable isotopes (incl. % abundance) indicated by green colored boxes; b unstable isotopes indicated by purplish colored boxes; when measured, half-lives lives are shown as HL = xx Gamma emissions not shown; per W-L W L theory, they are automatically converted directly into infrared by heavy SPP electrons; β-delayed decays also not shown (neutron emissions into local continuum tend to be suppressed because of density of occupied fermionic f states) Total gross Q v from C-20 C thru Fe-56= MeV Sum of HLs from C-20 C thru Fe-56 = ~3.4 hrs Comments: Stable nuclei produced by this particular reaction pathway typically have high natural abundances, e.g., Ne,, Na, Fe Sum of half-lives lives from C-20 C to Fe-56 is a little more than three hours; isotope with the longest half-life life is just before Fe-56: Mn-56, which is the key gateway isotope in this nucleosynthetic path. Practically, this means that: (a) some Fe-56 will be synthesized within an hour or so after ULM neutron production begins; ; and (b) within 5 6 hours after ULMN production ends (for whatever reason), many reaction products will have decayed into stable isotopes 55

56 1994: BARC experiments with carbon-arcs in H 2 O - XI Comments: LENR nucleosynthetic pathway from Carbon to Iron Unlike SRI Case replications, ULM neutron fluxes in high-current carbon-arc arc experiments were high enough to pass through Fluorine valley of death (i.e., >10 10 ULMNs cm 2 /sec) Please recognize that this model example represents but one of many m possible LENR nucleosynthetic pathways from Carbon to Iron; final product results observed in a given experiment al run reflect a sum total across many parallel alternate reaction paths ULM neutron production occurs near the carbon rod tips and on nanoparticles noparticles floating in the water in regions of high currents and electric fields that form between the two C rods; once a particular piece of matter leaves such a region, neutron production stops quickly. Detritus lying on the bottom of a reaction vessel is simply undergoing radioactive decays If the data of Sundaresan & Bockris and Singh et al. are correct,, the only way that Iron can be produced from Carbon that quickly (becoming analytically detectable within an hour or two) is via nucleosynthetic paths that involve extremely neutron-rich rich isotopes Model pathway on the previous slide clearly illustrates how LENRs s can release a great deal of energy in the form of heat without producing deadly gammas or long ng-lived radioactive isotopes. In that example, the nucleosynthetic path releases ~386 6 MeV - almost twice the energy of a fission reaction (~190 MeV) slowly over a period of hours 56

57 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Are LENRs connected with hydrogenated fullerenes and graphene? Where nuclear science meets chemistry? 57

58 Are LENRS connected with hydrogenated fullerenes? - I How might W-L theory operate in the absence of hydride-forming metals? Let us recall how W-L W L theory works on surfaces of hydride-forming metals, e.g., Pd, Ni, Ti. Specifically, triggering LENRs requires (for details please see our 2006 EPJC paper): Many-body films consisting of collections of collectively oscillating electrons they consist of surface plasmon polariton electrons (SPPs) on metallic c surfaces Many-body collections ( patches( patches ) ) of collectively oscillating light hydrogenous atoms comprise protons, deuterons, or tritons found within many-body patches located on surfaces of highly hydrogen-loaded metallic hydrides, e.g., Pd, Ni, Ti Breakdown of Born-Oppenheimer approximation this enables mutual coupling and energy transfers between quantum mechanically entangled patches of collectively oscillating hydrogenous atoms and nearby entangled SPP electrons Energy inputs to produce fluxes of catalytic ULM neutrons types of energy inputs that can couple effectively with many-body, collectively-coherently coherently oscillating condensed matter hydrogen-electron electron systems include: ion fluxes, electric currents, laser photons, p and magnetic fields, among others Answering the question reduces to whether carbon-arc arc systems contain or readily synthesize carbon-based based structures that have: collective surface electron oscillations that are analogous to SPPs; surfaces that can support collectively oscillating patches of hydrogenous atoms; and breakdown of Born-Oppenheimer Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4,

59 Are LENRS connected with hydrogenated fullerenes? - II Can hydrogenated fullerene/graphene structures replace metals in LENRs? Hypothesis : π electrons that are found on surfaces of planar graphene or curvilinear fullerene carbon structures oscillate collectively, just like SPP electrons on metals; hydrogen atoms (protons) sticking above surfaces of hydrogenated graphene and/or fullerenes also oscillate collectively, thus forming many- body patches analogous to those that form on the surfaces of hydrogen-loaded metals; and, Born-Oppenheimer approximation breaks down on graphene and fullerene surfaces Present evidence for the above hypothesis: is as follows If the above hypothesis were true, it would readily explain experimental results of ca carbon-arc arc in H 2 O experiments Born-Oppenheimer is now known to break down on surfaces of fullerene structures (directly observed in 2009 paper at right) Fullerenes/nanotubes nanotubes are synthesized in carbon-arcs; arcs; S & B and Singh et al. were unaware of this fact (2003 paper cited at right) Carbon isotope anomalies, excess heat, and low-level level gamma emissions reported during phenanthrene hydrogenation (right) Need for future experimentation: clearly, a large number of new experiments would be required to fully investigate and validate this new Source conjecture of Graphic: regarding Nature, 445, January carbon-based 4, 2007 based LENR systems Bushmaker et al., Direct observation of Born- Oppenheimer approximation breakdown in carbon nanotubes in Nano Letters 9 (2) pp Feb. 11, 2009 In ref. [9] this fullerene thermochemical synthesis paper actually cites S&B s 1994 Fusion Technology article that has been discussed herein: Lange et al., Nanocarbon production by arc discharge in water, Carbon 41 pp Hydrogenation of various carbon structures could potentially occur in the environment of carbon-arcs arcs in H 2 O. In that regard, synthesis of hydrogenated graphene (graphane( graphane) ) was first reported this year: Elias et al., Control of graphene s properties by reversible hydrogenation: evidence for graphane, Science 323 pp In 2008, Tadahiko Mizuno, a well known Japanese LENR researcher, for the first time published direct experimental evidence that LENRs can occur on carbon structures. If his surprising results can be confirmed by other researchers, it would appear to imply that LENRs can potentially occur on other types of carbon structures such as phenanthrene - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with three fused benzene rings Mizuno, Anomalous heat generation during the hydrogenation of phenanthrene, results presented at ICCF-14 conference, Washington, DC, in August 2008 See: canr.org/acrobat/mizunotanomaloushb.pdf 59

60 Are LENRS connected with hydrogenated fullerenes? - III Hydrogenated fullerenes/graphene: where nuclear science meets chemistry? Tip-off : Lange et al. ( cited on previous slide) published some fascinating data, including what may be a large thermal anomaly in their carbon-arc arc experiments. Quoting: the presence of atomic hydrogen appears to be a new feature Meanwhile, the discharge was accompanied by very strong and wide continuum radiation covering the visible and UV range. The following related papers are also interesting: Subrahmanyam et al., Simple method of preparing graphene flakes by an arc-discharge method, Journal pf Physical Chemistry 113 pp Alternative methods for hydrogenation of graphene to synthesize graphane are discussed in: The average plasma temperature in the water was Luo et al., Thickness-dependent reversible quite high, ca K. The obtained hydrogenation of graphene layers, ACSNano 3 pp. temperatures for doped electrodes were within the same range. For the same of comparison, a reference test was carried out in He [gas] under atmospheric pressure and the same discharge conditions (40A and 21 V) News story about the first synthesis of graphane: [around 800W].. The obtained temperatures were ca K lower than for discharge in water. Even at higher Scientists discover ground-breaking material: arc power input (>2 kw) in He the temperatures are still Graphane, Physorg.com January 30, 2009 a few hundred degrees lower. It is apparent that the higher plasma temperature in water results from The Manchester researchers produced high-quality bubbles, which are small in number and volume, leading crystals of graphane by exposing pristine graphene to to high energy density. atomic hydrogen. Meanwhile, reactions among carbon, hydrogen, and hydrogen are highly exothermic. Under atmospheric From: pressure, the degree of dissociation of water into atomic oxygen and hydrogen is higher than 99% at ca. 5000K. Here is an earlier theoretical reference in which they predict the stability of an extended two-dimensional Interesting parallel and perhaps not just a hydrocarbon on the basis of first-principles total-energy coincidence: K is about the calculations. : same temperature range as LENR nuclear- active hot spots. See Lattice Technical Sofo et al., Graphane:: A two-dimensional Overview dated June 25, 2009, Slides # hydrocarbon, Physical Review B 75 pp , 70, 75, 76 Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4, 2007 Versatile graphene: When a highly conductive graphene sheet is exposed to hydrogen atoms (white), they attach to the carbon atoms (black), transforming the material into graphane,, an insulator. This is the first evidence that graphene s properties can be manipulated chemically. Credit: P. Huey/Science From: m/computing/22038/?a=f 60

61 Commercializing a Next-Generation Source of Safe Nuclear Energy Final comments 61

62 Many minor anomalies may also be clarified β-delayed decays of neutron-rich isotopes could explain loose ends in LENRs Since 1989, there have been varied loose ends of carefully collected LENR experimental data that, while providing additional evidence that anomalous nuclear processes were somehow at work, either did not occur in large fluxes, or occurred only sporadically, even in a series of otherwise more-or or-less identical experiments This body of data did not show any significant correlation with either production of excess heat or He-4, which most researchers regarded as the key main events in LENRs These less frequent LENR anomalies included: small bursts of detectable neutrons; MeV-energy energy protons and deuterons; and energetic alpha particles (up to a very anomalous ~ MeV reported by Lipson at APS 2002) Per W-L W L and discussion in Overview Slides #6-8, very neutron-rich, rich, unstable isotopes are produced in LENR systems by large fluxes of ULM neutrons. Such nuclei can decay via a variety of β-delayed channels that are in fact consistent with these varied types of experimental results consistent Source with of Graphic: these Nature, varied 445, January types 4, 2007 of experimental results An interesting paper on small neutron bursts is by: Shyam et al., Multiplicity distribution of neutron emission in cold fusion experiments Which appears on pp in the pdf version of: BARC Studies in Cold Fusion, P.K. Iyengar and M. Srinivsan,, eds., Gov t of India, Atomic Energy Commission, December 1989 (153 pages 30 MB) which can be downloaded online from: BARC1500Report/1500.shtml A truly fascinating paper on energetic alpha and proton emissions in LENRs is as follows: Lipson et al., Phenomenon of an energetic charged particle emission from hydrogen/ deuterium loaded metals, ICCF-10 held in Cambridge, MA 2003 Can be found in the Proceedings published by World Scientific and obtained online at: canr.org/acrobat/lipsonagphenomenon.pdf Quoting: new new phenomenon of energetic alpha (up to 16.0 MeV) and proton (~1.7 MeV) emissions has been discovered from a metal loaded/excited by electrolysis, glow discharge or powerful laser. These experiments show a remarkable feature... all exhibit a similar specific energy yield of long-range alphas (1 alpha particle per ev input energy/pd(ti Pd(Ti) ) target atom) independent of the excitation power of delivering method (electrolysis, glow discharge or laser irradiation). 62

63 LENRs what is needed to forge ahead in the future? LENRs could potentially become an important new energy technology y as well as an exciting new area of physical science that may ultimately tely extend into many different realms. Unfortunately, LENRs also involve: Intensely multidisciplinary scientific skills to solve important technical issues Very complex, collective, multi-step, many-body nonlinear physical phenomena (not just one or two simple physical effects that linearly play-off on each other) Complicated multivariate experiments (many variables are very hard to isolate) Extremely dynamic physical systems (ULMN nuclear reaction networks can evolve very rapidly over time and have a multitude of possible pathways) p Micron-scale and smaller nanoscale phenomena and effects in condensed matter systems (work at extremely small length scales can be very expensive) Given all of the above, to fully develop the field of LENRs needs: vastly more scientists from many different disciplines working in it; multiple m universities that can train graduate students in the subject; and d much greater worldwide funding from governments and the private sector greater Source worldwide of Graphic: Nature, 445, funding January 4, 2007 from governments and the private secto 63

64 Publications on the Widom-Larsen theory of LENRs Since 2005, seven papers have been published or released on the arxiv Ultra Low Momentum Neutron Catalyzed Nuclear Reactions on Metallic Hydride Surfaces, Eur.. Phys. J. C 46, 107 (2006 arxiv in May 2005) Widom and Larsen Absorption of Nuclear Gamma Radiation by Heavy Electrons on Metallic Hydride Surfaces arxiv:cond-mat/ (Sept 2005) Widom and Larsen Nuclear Abundances in Metallic Hydride Electrodes of Electrolytic Chemical Cells arxiv:cond-mat/ (Feb 2006) Widom and Larsen Theoretical Standard Model Rates of Proton to Neutron Conversions Near Metallic Hydride Surfaces arxiv:nucl- th/ v2 (Sep 2007) Widom and Larsen Energetic Electrons and Nuclear Transmutations in Exploding Wires arxiv:nucl-th/ (Sept 2007) Widom, Srivastava, and Larsen High Energy Particles in the Solar Corona arxiv:nucl- th/ (April 2008) Widom, Srivastava, and Larsen A A Primer for Electro-Weak Induced Low Energy Nuclear Reactions arxiv:gen-ph/ v1 (Oct 2008) Srivastava, Widom, and Larsen (ACS LENR Sourcebook 2009 in press) Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4,

65 LENRs are multidisciplinary and need vastly more study A A scientist is supposed to have a complete and thorough knowledge, e, at first hand, of some subjects and, therefore, is usually expected not to write on any topic of which he is not a life master. This is regarded as a matter of noblesse oblige. For the present purpose I beg to renounce the noblesse, if any, and to be the freed of the ensuing g obligation. My excuse is as follows: We have inherited from our forefathers the keen longing for unified, all-embracing knowledge. The very name given to the highest institutions ions of learning reminds us, that from antiquity to and throughout many centuries the universal aspect has been the only one to be given full credit. But the spread, both in and width and depth, of the multifarious branches of knowledge during the last hundred odd years has confronted us with a queer dilemma. We feel clearly that we are only now beginning to acquire reliable material for welding together the sum total of all that is known into a whole; but, on the other hand, it has become e next to impossible for a single mind fully to command more than a small specialized portion on of it. I I can see no other escape from this dilemma (lest our true aim be lost forever) than that some of us should venture to embark on a synthesis of facts and theories, albeit with second-hand and incomplete knowledge of some of them - and at the risk of making fools of ourselves. Erwin Schrödinger, 1944 Source of Graphic: Nature, 445, January 4,