Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Transcription

1 Basic Concepts of Chemistry Malone, L ISBN-13: Table of Contents PROLOGUE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY A. The Creation of Matter B. The Mystery of Fire C. The Scientific Method D. The Study of Chemistry and Using This Textbook CHAPTER 1 MEASUREMENTS IN CHEMISTRY Part A The Numbers Used in Chemistry 1-1 The Numerical Value of a Measurement The Qualities of a Number Zero as a Significant Figure 1-2 Significant Figures and Mathematical Operations Rules for Addition and Subtraction and Rounding Off Rules for Multiplication and Division 1-3 Expressing Large and Small Numbers: Scientific Notation Changing Numbers into Scientific Notation Mathematical Manipulation of Scientific Notation Part B The Measurements Used in Chemistry 1-4 Measurement of Mass, Length, and Volume The English System of Measurements The Metric System of Measurements The Prefixes Used in the Metric System Relationships Between the Metric and English Systems 1-5 Conversion of Units by the Factor-Label Method Relationships as Conversion Factors One Step Conversions and Unit Maps Multistep Conversions 1-6 Measurement of Temperature Thermometer Scales Relationships Between Scales CHAPTER 2 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Part A The Elements and Their Composition 2-1 The Elements Free Elements in Nature The Names of Elements The Distribution of the Elements The Symbols of the Elements 2-2 The Composition of Elements: Atomic Theory The Atomic Theory The Size of an Atom 2-3 Composition of the Atom The Electron and Electrostatic Forces The Nuclear Model of the Atom The Particles in the Nucleus 2-4 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Mass Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes Isotopic Mass and Atomic Mass Part B Compounds and Their Composition 2-5 Molecular Compounds Recognizing the Names of Compounds Molecules, Molecular Compounds, and Covalent Bonds

2 2-5.3 The Formulas of Molecular Compounds Molecular Elements 2-6 Ionic Compounds Cations and Anions The Origin of the Charge on Ions The Formulas of Ionic Compounds CHAPTER 3 THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND ENERGY Part A The Properties of Matter 3-1 The Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter The Physical States of Matter Changes in Physical State Types of Physical Properties Chemical Changes and Chemical Properties Chemical Change and Conservation of Mass 3-2 Density A Physical Property Density as a Physical Property Density as a Conversion Factor Specific Gravity 3-3 The Properties of Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures Homogeneous Mixtures and Solutions Alloys - Homogeneous Mixtures of Metals Part B Energy and Its Interaction With Matter 3-4 The Forms and Types of Energy Forms of Energy Exothermic and Endothermic Changes Kinetic and Potential Energy 3-5 Energy Measurement and Specific Heat Units of Heat Energy The Nutritional Calorie and Heat Exchange CHAPTER 4 THE PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE Part A Relationships Among the Elements and the Periodic Table 4-1 The Origin of the Periodic Table Metals and Nonmetals Two Kinds of Metals The Origin of the Periodic Table 4-2 Using the Periodic Table Locating the Metals and Nonmtals Periods Groups Physical States and the Periodic Table Part B Formulas and Names of Compounds 4-3 Naming and Writing Formulas of Metal Nonmetal Binary Compounds Metals with Ions of Only One Charge Metals with Ions of More Than One Charge 4-4 Naming and Writing Formulas of Compounds with Polyatomic Ions Oxyanions Naming and Writing the Formulas of Salts with Polyatomic Ions 4-5 Naming Nonmetal-Nonmetal Binary Compounds Writing the Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds Naming Binary Molecular Compounds 4-6 Naming Acids Binary Acids Oxyacids CHAPTER 5 CHEMICAL REACTIONSC Part A The Representation of Chemical Changes and Some Types of Changes 5-1 Chemical Equations

3 5-1.1 Constructing an Equation Rules for Balancing Equations 5-2 Combustion, Combination, and Decomposition Reactions Combustion Reactions Combination Reactions Decomposition Reactions Part B Ions in Water and How They React 5-3 The Formation of Ions in Water Salts in Aqueous Solution Strong Acids in Aqueous Solution 5-4 Single-Replacement Reactions Types of Equations The Activity Series 5-5 Double-Replacement Reactions-Precipitation Soluble and Insoluble Ionic Compounds Formation of a Precipitate Rules for Writing Precipitation Reactions 5-6 Double-Replacement Reactions-Neutralization Strong Acids and Strong Bases Neutralization Reactions CHAPTER 6 QUANTATIES IN CHEMISTRY Part A The Measurement of Mass of Elements and Compounds 6-1 Relative Masses of Elements The Mass of an Atom Counting by Weighing 6-2 The Mole and the Molar Mass of Elements The Definition of the Mole The Meaning of a Mole Relationships Among Dozens (the unit), Number, and Mass Relationships Among Moles (the unit), Number, and Mass 6-3 The Molar Mass of Compounds The Formula Weight of a Compound The Molar Mass of a Compound Part B The Mass of Compounds and Their Component Elements 6-4 The Composition of Compounds The Mole Composition of a Compound The Mass Composition of a Compound The Percent Composition of a Compound 6-6 Empirical and Molecular Formulas Empirical Formulas Calculating Empirical Formulas The Molecular Formula of a Compound CHAPTER 7 Quantitative Relationships in Chemical Reactions Part A The Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions 7-1 Stoichiometry Overview of Stoichiometry The Mole Ratio Stoichiometry Problems 7-2 Limiting Reactant The Definition of Limiting Reactant Solving Limiting Reactant Problems 7-3 Percent Yield Part B Energy Relationships in Chemical Reactions 7-4 Heat Energy in Chemical Reactions Thermochemical Equations Calculation of Heat Energy in a Reaction

4 CHAPTER 8 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY Part A The Energy of the Electron in the Atom 8-1 The Emission Spectra of the Elements and Bohr s Model Electromagnetic Radiation and Wavelength The Continuous Spectrum The Discrete Spectrum Bohr s Model Quantized Energy Levels The Ground State and Excited States 8-2 Modern Atomic Theory - A Closer Look at Energy Levels The Wave Mechanical Model The First Shell and s Orbitals The Second Shell and p Orbitals Outer Shells with d and f Orbitals Part B The Periodic Table and Electron Configuration 8-3 Electron Configuration of the Elements The Aufbau Principle and Electron Configuration Assignment of Electrons into Shells and Subshells Exceptions to the Normal Order of Filling Using the Periodic Table to Determine Electron Configuration Electron Configurations of Specific Groups 8-4 Orbital Diagrams of the Elements The Pauli Exclusion Principle and Orbital Diagrams Hund s Rule 8-5 Periodic Trends Atomic Radius Ionization Energy Ionic Radii CHAPTER 9 THE CHEMICAL BOND Part A Chemical Bonds and the Nature of Ionic Compounds 9.-1 Bond Formation and Representative Elements The Octet Rule Valence Electrons and Dot Symbols 9-2 Formation of Ions and Ionic Compounds Formation of Binary Ionic Compounds Other Representative Element Ions The Physical State of Ionic Compounds Part B Chemical Bonds and the Nature of Molecular Compounds 9-3 The Covalent Bond Lewis Structures Hydrogen Compounds with Other Nonmetals The Electrons in Polyatomic Ions Double and Triple Bonds 9-4 Writing Lewis Structures Rules for Writing Lewis Structures Exceptions to the Octet Rule 9-5 Resonance Structures Part C The Distribution of Charge in Chemical Bonds 9-6 Electronegativity and Polarity of Bonds Electronegativity Representing Polar bonds Predicting the Polarity of Bonds 9-7 Geometry of Simple Molecules VSEPR Theory Molecular Geometry 9-8 Polarity of Molecules Nonpolar Molecules Polar Molecules 9-9 Formal Charge (optional) Resonance Structures That Violate the Octet Rule Other Applications of Formal Charge

5 Key Terms and Summary Charts in Part C CHAPTER 10 THE GASEOUS STATE Part A The Nature of the Gaseous State and the Effects of Conditions 10-1 The Nature of Gaseous State and the Kinetic Molecular Theory The Properties of Gases The Kinetic Molecular Theory Graham s Law 10-2 The Pressure of a Gas and Boyle s Law The Barometer and Pressure Boyle s Law 10-3 Charles s, Gay-Lussac s, and Avogadro s Laws Charles s Law Gay-Lussac s Law The Combined Gas Law Avogadro s Law Part B Relationships Among Quantities of Gases, Conditions, and Chemical Reactions 10-4 The Ideal Gas Law Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law The Meaning of an Ideal Gas 10-5 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures 10-6 The Molar Volume and Density of a Gas The Molar Volume Density of a Gas at STP 10-7 Stoichiometry Involving Gases CHAPTER 11 THE SOLID AND THE LIQUID STATES Part A The Properties of Condensed States and the Forces Involved 11-1 Properties of the Solid and Liquid States Properties of the Condensed States The Condensed States and Kinetic Theory 11-2 Intermolecular Forces and Physical State London Forces Dipole-Dipole Forces Hydrogen Bonding 11-3 The Solid State: Melting Point Amorphous and Crystalline Solids Ionic Solids Molecular Solids Network Solids Metallic Solids Part B The Liquid State and Changes in State 11-4 The Liquid State: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Boiling Point Surface Tension Viscosity Vapor Pressure Boiling Point 11-5 Energy and Changes in State Melting and Freezing Boiling and Condensation 11-6 The Heating Curve of Water Heating Ice Melting Ice Heating Water Vaporizing Water Heating Vapor CHAPTER 12 AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS Part A Solutions and the Quantities Involved 12-1 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions

6 Mixtures of Two Liquids The Formation of Aqueous Solutions of Ionic Compounds Formation of Aqueous Solutions of Molecular Compounds 12-2 The Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility Saturation of a Solution The Effect of Temperature on the Solubility of Solids in Water The Effect of Temperature on the Solubility of Gases in Water The Effect of Pressure on Solubility 12-3 Concentration: Percent by Weight Parts per Million and Parts per Billion Other Concentration Units Using Percent 12-4 Molarity and Dilution of Concentrated Solutions Calculations Involving Molarity Dilution of Concentrated Solutions 12-5 Stoichiometry Involving Solutions Part B The Effects of the Presence of Solutes in Water 12-6 Electrical Properties of Solutions Conduction of Electricity Nonelectrolytes and Electrolytes 12-6 Physical Properties of Solutions Vapor Pressure Boiling Point Melting Point Osmotic Pressure Electrolytes and Colligative Properties CHAPTER 13 ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS Part A Acids, Bases, and the Formation of Salts 13-1 Properties of Acids and Bases Arrhenius Acids and Bases Strong Acids in Water Strong Bases in Water 13-2 Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs Amphiprotic Ions 13-3 Strengths of Acids and Bases The Strength of Acids The Strength of Bases 13-4 Neutralization and Salts Neutralization of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base Neutralization of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base Neutralization of a Polyprotic Acid with a Strong Base Part B The Measurement of Acid Strength 13-5 Equilibrium of Water Autoionization The Ion Product of Water 13-6 ph Scale The Definition of ph ph and the Acidity of Solutions Summary of Major Concepts in Part B Part C Salts and Oxides as Acids and Bases 13-7 The Effect of Salts on ph Hydorlysis Anion Hydrolysis Cation Hydrolysis Aqueous Solutions of Salts 13-8 Control of ph - Buffer Solutions The Function of a Buffer The Composition of a Buffer 13-9 Oxides as Acids and Bases Acid Anhydrides Base Anhydrides Key Terms and Summary Charts in Part C

7 CHAPTER 14 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS Part A Redox Reactions The Exchange of Electrons 14-1 The Nature of Oxidation and Reduction and Oxidation States Half-Reactions Redox Reactions Oxidation States Using Oxidation States in Redox Reactions 14-2 Balancing Redox Equations: Oxidation State Method 14-3 Balancing Redox Equations: Ion-Electron Method Balancing Reactions in Acidic Solution Balancing Reactions in Basic Solution Part B Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Redox Reactions 14-4 Predicting Spontaneous Redox Reactions 14-5 Voltaic Cells The Daniell Cell Common Batteries The Fuel Cell 14-6 Electrolytic Cells CHAPTER 15 REACTION RATES AND EQUILIBRIUM Part A Collisions of Molecules and Reactions at Equilibrium 15-1 How Reactions Take Place Collision Theory Activation Energy The Heat of Reaction 15-2 The Rates of Chemical Reactions The Magnitude of the Activation Energy The Temperature The Concentrations of Reactants The Effect of Particle Size The Presence of a Catalyst 15-3 Reactions at Equilbrium Reversible Reactions Systems at Equilibrium 15-4 Equilibrium and Le Chatelier s Principle Le Châtelier s principle Changing Concentrations Changing Pressure Changing Temperature Adding a Catalyst Part B The Quantitative Aspects of Reactions at Equilibrium 15-5 The Equilibrium Constant The Equilibrium Constant Expression The Value of the Equilibrium Constant 15-6 Equilibria of Weak Acids and Bases in Water Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Weak Acids and Weak Bases Determining the Value of Ka or Kb pka and pkb Using Ka or Kb to Determine ph The ph of Buffer Solutions 15-7 Solubility Equilibria The Solubility Product The Value of Ksp Ksp and the Formation of Precipitates CHAPTER 16 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY Part A Naturally Occurring Radioactivity 16-1 Radioactivity Alpha (a) Particles

8 Beta (b) Particles Gamma (g) Rays Positron Particles and Electron Capture Modes of Decay 16-2 Rates of Decay of Radioactive Isotopes Half-life Radioactive Decay Series 16-3 Effects of Radiation Generation of Heat Formation of Ions and Free Radicals 16-4 Detecting and Measuring Radiation Film Badges and Radon Detectors Geiger and Scintillation Counters Radiation and the Human Body Part B Induced Nuclear Changes and Their Uses 16-5 Nuclear Reactions Transmutation Particle Accelerators Synthetic Heavy Elements 16-6 Applications of Radioactivity Carbon Dating Neutron Activation Analysis Food Preservation Medical Therapy and Diagnosis 16-7 Nuclear Fission and Fission The Atomic Bomb Nuclear Power Nuclear Fusion CHAPTER 17 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Part A Hydrocarbons 17-1 Bonding in Organic compounds Organic and Inorganic Compounds Bonding in Organic Compounds Representation of Isomers Condensed Formulas 17-2 Alkanes Homologous Series IUPAC Names Sources of Alkanes 17-3 Alkenes and Alkynes Alkenes Polymers Alkynes 17-4 Aromatics The Structure of Benzene Derivatives of Benzene Part B Other Classes of Organic Compounds 17-5 Alcohols and Ethers Alcohols Ethers 17-6 Aldehydes and Ketones 17-7 Amines 17-8 Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Amides Carboxylic Acids Esters Amides Uses in Painkillers and Polymers CHAPTER 18 BIOCHEMISTRY Part A Three Basic Types of Biochemical Compounds 18-1 Lipids

9 Soaponifiable Lipids Complex Lipids Sterioids 18-2 Carbohydrates Monosaccarides Ribose and Deoxyribose Dissacarides Polysaccharides 18-3 Amino Acids and Proteins Amino Acids Dipeptides Proteins Part B Biochemical Compounds and Life Functions 18-4 Enzymes The Effects of Conditions on Enzymes The Mechanism of Enzyme Activity 18-5 Nucleic Acids and Genetics The Structure of DNA and RNA Replication of DNA Transcription and Translation FOREWORD TO THE APPENDIXES APPENDIX A BASIC MATHEMATICS APPENDIX B BASIC ALGEBRA APPENDIX C SCIENTIFIC NOTATION APPENDIX D GRAPHS APPENDIX E CALCULATORS APPENDIX F GLOSSARY APPENDIX G ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS