Norwich City Schools AP Chemistry

Transcription

1 Topic: Structure of Matter Students will use inquiry based methods to investigate scientific concepts Students will examine and investigate the structure, properties, and interactions of matter. Students will investigate forms and sources of energy Atomic theory and atomic structure The interactions of matter and energy can be explained by understanding the history of atomic theories Evidence for the atomic theory Atomic masses; determination by chemical and physical means Atomic number and mass number; isotopes Electron energy levels: atomic spectra, quantum numbers, atomic orbitals Periodic relationships including, for example, atomic radii, ionization energies, electron affinities, oxidation states Determine if a species is an atom, molecule or ion Student will be able to use the Law of Conservation of Mass; the Law of Definite Proportions; the Law of Multiple Proportions Student will be able to: assign the correct number of proton, neutrons, and electrons to an atom write the symbol for an atom determine the charge and number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in monatomic ions determine molar masses from gas density, freezing point and boiling point measurements Covalent bonds Molecule Chemical formula Structural formula Ion Cation Anion Ionic bond Polyatomic ion 1

2 Topic: Structure of Matter Chemical bonding Binding forces hold compounds together Molecular models explain how bonding orients molecules The geometry of molecules and ions, structural isomerism of simple organic molecules and coordination complexes; dipole moments of molecules; relation of properties to structure, can be explained by chemical bonds Atoms react with one another according to nuclear attractive forces on electrons Models are used to help visualize patterns of electron movement name or give formulas for the following classes of compounds: binary salts salts with polyatomic ions binary covalent compounds acids identify and draw: Lewis structures valence bond: hybridization of orbitals, resonance, sigma and pi bonds VSEPR theory 2

3 Topic: Structure of Matter Nuclear chemistry Radioactive elements can be deleterious or advantageous to man A tremendous amount of energy is stored as matter The stability of the nucleus of an atom is dependant upon the proton to neutron ratio Atoms will decay until stability is reached Radiation is emitted during nuclear reactions, both natural and artificial write: nuclear equations determine: half-lives identify: radioactivity its uses its dangers describe: chemical applications 3

4 Topic: Structure of Matter Gases Laws of ideal gases can be extrapolated to normal gases under normal conditions Kinetic-molecular theory explains physical interactions of atoms and molecules Equation of state for an ideal gas is PV nrt Partial pressures can be added to find the whole Interpretation of ideal gas laws on the basis of this theory The volume of a gas was explained by Avogadro s hypothesis, thus developing the mole concept Temperature depends upon the kinetic energy of molecules There are deviations from ideal gas laws define, interpret and use gas laws: Ideal gas law Dalton s law Graham s law Liquids and solids Matter exists in four phases and its properties can be explained using Kinetic theory Liquids and solids from the kinetic-molecular viewpoint Phase diagrams of onecomponent systems : explain the physical properties of matter based on Kinetic-molecular theory Changes of state, including critical points and triple points Structure of solids; lattice energies 4

5 Topic: Structure of Matter Solutions Solutions from due to attractive forces between solute and solvent The attractive forces of the solute on the solvent alter the physical properties of the solvent Types of solutions and factors affecting solubility Methods of expressing concentration (the use of normalities is not tested) Raoult s law and colligative properties (nonvolatile solutes); osmosis non-ideal behavior (qualitative aspects) calculate: concentration in molarity molality % by volume % by mass ppm critical temperatures based on colligative properties identify: solutions and factors relating to solution formation 5

6 Topic: Reactions Reaction types Reactions occur to stabilize a system under its current conditions Oxidation-reduction reactions Acids and bases undergo reactions in a process called neutralization Oxidation number The role of the electron in oxidation-reduction Electrochemistry: electrolytic and galvanic cells; Faraday s laws; standard half-cell potentials; Nernst equation; prediction of the direction of redox reactions : perform and write acidbase reactions relate the concepts of Arrhenius, Bronsted- Lowry, and Lewis to acid base reactions identify coordination complexes and amphoterism identify precipitation reactions Faraday s law of electrolysis Identify standard electrode potentials and their use; Nernst Equation 6

7 Topic: Reactions Stoichiometry Atoms combine and recombine in fixed proportions Chemical reactions occur in whole number ratios based on moles. All measurements can be converted to moles thus enabling the outcomes of chemical reactions to be predicted. : identify ionic and molecular species present in chemical systems write net ionic equations balance equations including those for redox reactions explain mass and volume relations with emphasis on the mole concept including empirical formulas and limiting reactants determine percentage composition, empirical and molecular formulas from experimental data Stoichiometric relations using the concept of the mole; titration calculations, mole fractions; molar and molal solutions 7

8 Topic: Reactions Equilibrium A state of equilibrium may be reached in a system A system will remain in equilibrium until it is acted upon by an outside stress. Equilibrium can be quantitated. : define concept of dynamic equilibrium, physical and chemical describe Le Chatelier s principle form equilibrium constants apply equilibrium constants including their use for simultaneous equilibria explain and develop equilibrium constants for gaseous reactions: Kp, Kc, reactions in solution, acids and bases; pk, ph, solubility product constants and their application to precipitation and the dissolution of slightly soluble compounds define common ion effect write chemical equations for buffers and salt hydrolysis 8

9 Topic: Reactions Kinetics Overall chemical reaction rates are limited by the slowest rate determining step Concept of rate of reaction Effect of temperature change on rates Energy of activation; the role of catalysts The relationship between the rate-determining step and a mechanism : do kinetics calculations use the experimental data and graphical analysis to determine reactant order, rate constants, and reaction rate laws 9

10 Topic: Reactions Thermodynamics State functions First Law Change in enthalpy Heat of formation, heat of reaction Hess s law Heats of vaporization and fusion Calorimetry : do thermodynamic and thermochemical calculations Second Law Entropy Free energy of formation Free energy of reaction Dependence of change in free energy on enthalpy and entropy changes Relationship of change in free energy to equilibrium constants and electrode potentials 10

11 Topic: Descriptive Chemistry Knowledge of specific facts of chemistry is essential for an understanding of principles and concepts. These descriptive facts, including the chemistry involved in environmental and societal issues, should not be isolated from the principles being studied but should be taught throughout the course to illustrate and illuminate the principles. Chemical reactivity and products of chemical reactions Relationships in the periodic table: Horizontal Vertical Diagonal with examples from alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, and the first series of transition elements 11

12 Topic: Introduction to organic chemistry Hydrocarbons and functional groups (structure, nomenclature, chemical properties) Physical and chemical properties of simple organic compounds should also be included as exemplary material for the study of other areas such as bonding, equilibria involving weak acids, kinetics, colligative properties, and stoichiometric determinations of empirical and molecular formulas 12

13 Topic: Laboratory The differences between college chemistry and the usual secondary school chemistry course are especially evident in the laboratory work. The AP chemistry Exam includes some questions based on experiences and skills students acquire in the laboratory: making observations of chemical reactions and substances; recording data; calculating and interpreting results based on the quantitative data obtained; and communicating effectively the results of experimental work. Colleges have reported that some AP candidates, while doing well on the exam, have been at a serious disadvantage because of inadequate laboratory experience. Meaningful laboratory work is important in fulfilling the requirements of a college-level course of a elaborator science and in preparing a student for sophomore-level chemistry courses in college. Because chemistry professors at some institutions ask to see a record of the laboratory work done by an AP student before making a decision about granting credit, placement, or both, in the chemistry program, students should keep reports of their laboratory work that can be readily reviewed. 13