Tracking the Invasion Pathway: Assesment of α-diversity and Invasiveness of Alien Ornamental Plants of Srinagar(Kashmir, J&K), India

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1 Tracking the Invasion Pathway: Assesment of α-diversity and Invasiveness of Alien Ornamental Plants of Srinagar(Kashmir, J&K), India Aslam 1, * Khursheed Ahmad Ganaie 2, AQ John 3 and GH Dar 1 1. Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J& K, India Department of Botany, Islamia college of Science and Commerce, Srinagar, J& K, India Division of Floriculture, Medicinal and Aromatic plants, SKUAST- Kashmir, J& K, India _botany@yahoo.com; khursheedtrali@yahoo.co.in Abstract: The valley of Kashmir is famous for its marvellous landscape which attracts tourists from all along the globe. The landscaping of this heavenly abode predominantly involves alien ornamental plants. The present study puts on record the alien ornamental flora of Srinagar Kashmir, and thus, is a first compilation of alien ornamental flora of the region. The study enlists the occurrence of 271 exotic ornamental species distributed in 187 genera, belonging to 85 families, therefore piling up the total of alien plant species in the Kashmir Himalayas to 704. The taxonomic composition analysis of alien ornamental flora of the region revealed that dicots are represented by 223 species (82%) belonging to 151 genera and 65 families while as monocots comprised of 39 species (15%) dispersed in 28 genera and 13 families. Gymnosperms are represented by 9 species (3%), 8 genera and 7 families. Asteraceae (11.07%), Rosaceae (9.59%), Oleaceae (4.79%) are the largest families of exotic ornamental plants introduced into the Kashmir Himalayas. Out of 85 families, 42 are represented by a single genus and single species. The highest of alien ornamental species have come from the continent Asia (31%) followed by Europe (30%) and North America (20%). The study reports the occurrence of 133 alien ornamental species for the first time from Kashmir Himalayas. Our analysis of alien species establishment and invasion is not in consonance with Williamson s tens rule and proposes that human assisted species selection, introduction and establishment change the entire dimensions of tens rule to maximum values in invasion biology. [Nature and Science 2010;8(3):79-95]. (ISSN: ). Key words: Exotic, alien, ornamental flora, Kashmir, Himalayas, New records 1. Introduction Nature gave birth to life on the floor of planet Earth and then life diversified into a large of living forms or species on the back of a long temporal continuum. The heterogeneous spatial scale of Earth fueled this diversification with high degree of rigidity, evolving an estimated millions of of species. The continental drift stemmed isolated continents in which species evolved to the dictation of their unique physical (abiotic)-biotic environments. This resulted in specific continental biotas, stabilizing particular continental ecosystems. In addition, the continents offered huge dispersal or bio-geographical barriers limiting intercontinental species dispersal and thus lending rigidity and uniqueness to the continental biotas and evolutionary processes. This is the geological pattern of biogeography of species and communities entrenched in millions of years. The diversity of a particular continent is uniquely organized on the trophic shelf with unique speciesspecies interaction, across trophic level energy flow and nutrient cycling. This functional or ecological organization and niche specialization of component species lend life and stability to the particular ecosystems. This is Nature s way of running and controlling life, life processes, ecosystem and 79 ecosystem sustaining services. Any disturbance which alters this functional organization strikes at the heart of ecosystem, impairing ecosystem functioning, ecosystem stability and survival. According to Pysek et al 2002, alien species also called exotic, introduced, non-native species are defined as plant species in a given area outside the native distributional range, whose presence is due to intentional or unintentional human involvement. The industrial development and globalization bridged huge distances between continents and countries with modern means of transportation (Jenkin 1996). This high order mobility of human beings served as a dispersing force for living species plants, animals, insects, bacteria, viruses and other organisms nullifying and overcoming the usual bio-geographical or dispersal barriers which isolated them over millions of years (Jenkin 1996, Davis 2003). Globalization of trade, with enhanced transport, resulted in amplified intercontinental translocation of species (accidental as well as deliberate), causing homogenization or globalization of floras (Mckinney and Lockwood 1999, Drake et al. 1989, Olden 2006). This has greatly altered the composition of biodiversity in different ecosystems (Vitousek et al. 1996; Mack et al. 2000).

2 The anthropogenic facilitated dispersal exposes species to new environments. All the introduced species do not survive in the new environment (Carey 1996, Lewis and Kareiva 1993) and the niche availability proves decisive. Some species find the new environmental complex suitable for their growth and reproduction and thus get established (Williamson 1996) with 33% maximum values of establishment in case of intentional and careful introduction (Williamson and Fitter 1996). Without direct human intervention, some of these non-native species are capable of independent growth, and sustain selfreplacing populations. Such plants are categorized as Naturalized. According to Williamson s ten rule, 10% of these naturalized exotic species turn invasive which means that they produce reproductive offspring often in large s and have the potential to spread to large areas (Williamson 1996, Pysek et al. 2004).This group of alien species-invasive alien species is the nuisance group with tremendous negative ecological and biological implications. In the new introduced habitat the alien species enjoy competitive advantage in the utilization of resources and release from their native range enemies- stiff competitors, pathogens, parasites, predators or herbivores and many more others (Nunez et al 2008, Theubad and Simberloff 2001; Hierro et al 2004). This advantage coupled to high fecundity and high clutch size synergistically enhances the proliferation of these alien invasive species (Bazazz 1986) which then speedily change the contours of community composition and ecosystem function (Simon and Townsend 2003, Gibbs and Wainhouse 1986, Oak 1989). This high order reproduction and proliferation of alien invasive species leave the native species in an ecologically suffocating environment with impaired growth and reproduction (Gentle and Druggin 1997, Parker et al 1999). In case of animal invasive species, this population explosion in the introduced environment explodes on their prey populations be it plant or animal causing their shrinkage and sublimation to extinction. Thus invasive species are notoriously known for extinction of species and erosion of biodiversity (Vitousek et al 1996; Olden 2006). Globally invasive species are ranked as second worst cause of species extinction and biodiversity loss (Wilcove et al. 1998, Stein et al. 2008, Richardson et al. 1989). This threat drove ecologists and biologists to seriously study all aspects of alien species biology so that the biodiversity and ecosystems services are protected from their ill effects (Allandorf and Lundquist 2003). In Kashmir Himalayas the exotic ornamental plants are deliberately introduced for varied landscaping purposes ( 2009). The present study was undertaken with a view to assess the species and taxonomic diversity of these exotic 80 ornamentals, tracing their origin or nativity, studying their rate of establishment and invasiveness since no such specific study has been undertaken till date from this region. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study Area Situated in the North western extremity of India, the Jammu and Kashmir State is depicting a bewildering variety in its topography, culture, tradition, people and natural splendour. The State is bordered by Pakistan, Afghanistan and China from west to east; from south to east, the boundary of the State touches Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. The Kashmir Valley or the Vale of Kashmir, the central part of the Jammu and Kashmir State, is a beautiful valley enclosed in a magnificent amphitheatre of mountain ranges, the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal. It extends between the latitudes N to N and longitudes E to E, with an average altitude of about 1650 m from the mean sea level, and an annual precipitation of about mm. Traversed throughout by the river, the Valley is about 187 km long and 116 km wide, formed by Jhelum River (Fig. 1) Floristic study The ornamental flora of district Srinagar (Kashmir India) was scanned for exotic species. The s were collected and then identified upto the level of species and variety. Only alien species were included in the list. A species was listed as alien or exotic following Pysek et al which envisages that there is no evidence that it has any area in the subcontinent (India) where it is native. Following Pysek et al, the nativity of the species was recognised at the continental level viz Asia (barring the subcontinent India), Africa, Australia, North America, South America, and Europe. The species which have been raised through hybridisation by various gardeners and nursery men have been listed as species of Garden Origin. Previous floristic reports of the occurrence of a species from the region are given and those taxa not collected and characterised till date were ranked as first reports from the region. The voucher of all collected and characterised species have been deposited in KASH-Kashmir University Herbarium. The assessment of alien species establishment was carried out using all previous records of all nurseries and our own observations of a decade Terminology used Introduction means importing exotic species into the region, establishment means successful survival of this species while as naturalization means ability to form self sustaining populations. 3. Results

3 The exotic ornamental flora of central Kashmir is represented by a total of 271 species belonging to 187 genera and 85 families. The taxonomic composition analysis of alien ornamental flora revealed that dicots are represented by 223 species (82%) belonging to 151 genera and 65 families while as monocots comprised of 39 species (15%) dispersed in 28 genera and 13 families. Gymnosperms in the region are represented by 9 species (3%), 8 genera and 7 families. Of the 85 families within which the 271 species of alien ornamental plants are distributed, 10 families account for % (127 species) of the total alien ornamental flora. The families are, Asteraceae (11.07%), Rosaceae (9.59%), Oleaceae (4.79%), Papilionaceae (3.69%), Salicaceae (3.69%), Amaryllidaceae (3.32%), Caryophylaceae (3.32%), Liliaceae (3.32%), Amaranthaceae (2.58%), Brassicaceae (2.21%). Among 85 families, 42 families are represented by one genus with one species each. Out of these, 30 families belong to dicots, six to monocots, and six to gymnosperms. These families include Alstroemeriaceae, Araceae, Araucariaceae, Arecaceae, Balsaminaceae, Begoniaceae, Buddlejaceae, Buxaceae, Caesalpeniaceae Campanulaceae, Cannabaceae, Cannaceae, Capparidaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cornaceae, Cycadaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, Juglandaceae, Lythraceae, Meliaceae, Mimosaceae, Myrtaceae, Passifloraceae, Phormiaceae, Pinaceae, Platanaceae, Poaceae, Portulaceae, Punicaceae, Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, Simaroubaceae, Tamaricaceae, Taxaceae, Taxodiaceae, Theaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Ulmaceae and Verbenaceae. Habit analysis of the alien ornamental flora of campus revealed that herbs (134) predominated shrubs (75) and trees (62) in. Herbaceous perennials account for 27.30% of total alien flora followed by herbaceous annuals which contribute 22.14%. The species belong to different life forms as classified below: Table 1. Deciduous Trees Species Family Origin Flowering Published source Acer negundo,l. Aceraceae NAM Apr-May 003 Ara et al. Acer palmatum,thunb. Aceraceae AS Apr 004 FR var Atropurpureum Ailanthus altissima,swingle Simaroubaceae AS Jun 111 Ara et al. Albizia julibrissin, Durazz var. Rosea Mimosaceae AS Jun-Jul 001 Ara et al. Castanea sativa,mill. Fagaceae EU;AS;AF Jun-Jul 041 Dar et al. Catalpa bignonioides, Scop. Bignoniaceae NAM May-Jun 175 Ara et al. Celtis australis,l. Ulmaceae EU;AS Mar-May 009 Ara et al. Cercis siliquastrum,l. Papilionaceae EU;AS Apr-May 151 Singh & Misri (1974) Crataegus laevigata Rosaceae EU;AS;AF Apr-May 005 FR Cydonia oblonga, Mill. Rosaceae AS Apr 073 Dar et al. Ficus carica,l. Moraceae EU May-Jul 211 Dar et al. Fraxinus excelsior,l. Oleaceae EU;AS Apr 002 Stewart (1972) Fraxinus americana,l. Oleaceae NAM Apr 186 FR Ginkgo biloba, L. Ginkgoaceae AS Apr 150 Javeid (1964) Gleditsia tricanthos,l. Caesalpiniaceae NAM May-Jun 121 FR Juglans regia,l. Juglandaceae AS Mar-Apr 248 Ara et al. 81

4 Koelreuteria paniculata,laxm. Sapindaceae AS Jul 006 Singh & Misri (1974) Laburnum anagyroides, Medic. Papilionaceae EU Apr 123 Ara et al. Lagerstroemia indica,l. Lythraceae AS Jul-Aug 011 Ara et al. Magnolia kobus, DC. Magnoliaceae AS Apr-May 033 Ara et al. Magnolia liliflora, Desr. Magnoliaceae AS Apr-May 063 Ara et al. Magnolia x soulangiana,soul. Magnoliaceae GO Apr-May 100 FR Malus domestica, Borkh. Rosaceae EU;AS Apr 176 Dar et al. Melia azedarach, L. Meliaceae AS May 152 Ara et al. Morus alba, L. Moraceae AS Apr 200 Dar et al. Morus nigra, L. Moraceae AS Apr 007 Dar et al. Platanus orientalis,l. Platanaceae EU;AS Apr 162 Stewart (1972) Populus alba,l. Salicaceae EU;AS;AF Mar-Apr 024 Javeid (1972) Populus balsamifera, Salicaceae NAM Mar-Apr 026 Stewart (1972) Populus deltoides, Marsh Salicaceae NAM Mar-Apr 025 Ara et al. Populus nigra,l. Salicaceae EU;AS;AF Mar-Apr 031 Ara et al. Prunus amygdalus, Batsch. Rosaceae AS;AF Mar 101 Dar et al. Prunus armeniaca,l. Rosaceae AS Mar 122 Dar et al. Prunus avium,l. Rosaceae EU;AS;AF Mar 225 Dar et al. Prunus cerasus,l. Rosaceae EU;AS Apr 112 Dar et al. Prunus cerasifera,ehrh. Rosaceae EU;AS Apr 042 Stewart (1972) Prunus cerasifera Rosaceae EU;AS Apr 074 FR var issardi Prunus cerasifera var Rosaceae EU;AS Apr 043 FR Rosea Prunus persica,batsch. Rosaceae AS Apr 102 Dar et al. Punica granatum,l. Punicaceae EU May-Aug Pyrus communis,l. Rosaceae EU;AS Apr 032 Dar et al. Pyrus pashia, Ham.ex DC. Rosaceae AS Apr 008 Ara et al. Quercus robur,l. Fagaceae EU Apr 023 Singh & Kachroo (1976) Robinia pseudoacacia,l. Papilionaceae NAM May 124 Stewart (1972) Salix alba,l. Salicaceae EU;ASAF Mar-Apr 013 Javeid (1972) Salix aegyptica, Salicaceae EU;AS Mar-Apr 015 Ara et al. Salix bablyonica,l. Salicaceae AS Mar-Apr 018 Javeid (1972) Salix caprea,l. Salicaceae EU;AS Feb-Mar 017 FR Salix fragilis,l. Salicaceae EU Mar-Apr 019 Ara et al. Salix matsudana,koidz. var Salicaceae AS Apr 014 FR 82

5 Tortuosa, Hort. Sophora japonica,l. Papilionaceae AS Aug 016 Stewart (1972) Sophora japonica,l. var Papilionaceae AS Aug 113 FR Pendula Tamarix parviflora,,dc. Tamaricaceae EU Apr 010 Singh & Misri (1974) Table 2. Evergreen Trees Species Family Origin Flowering Published source Cupressus macrocarpa, Hartw. Cupressaceae NAM Feb-Apr 034 FR var Cashmeriana Cupressus sempervirens, L. Cupressaceae EU;AS Feb-Apr 021 Ara et al. Cryptomeria japonica D.Don Taxodiaceae AS Feb-Mar 161 Dar et al. Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl. Rosaceae AS Oct-Dec 027 Dar et al. Magnolia grandiflora, L Magnoliaceae NAM Jun-Jul 022 Ara et al. Olea europaea,l. Oleaceae EU Stewart (1972) Pinus halepensis,mill. Pinaceae EU;AS Jul-Aug 118 Ara et al. Taxus baccatta, L. Taxaceae EU;AF; Sept-Oct 177 Dar (2004) NAM Thuja orientalis,l. Cupressaceae AS Feb-Apr 020 Ara et al. Table 3. Deciduous Shrubs Hydrangea arborescens,l. Hydrangeaceae NAM Jun-Jul 115 FR Hydrangea macrophylla, Ser. Hydrangeaceae AS Jun-Jul 226 FR Jasminum Species nudiflorum, Lindl. Oleaceae Family AS Origin Mar-Apr Flowering 029 FR Kerria japonica, DC. Rosaceae AS Apr 213 Ara Published et al. source Paeonia suffruticosa, Andr. Paeoniaceae AS Apr-May 160 Ara et al. Philadelphus coronarius, L. Philadelphaceae EU May-Jun & 114 Dar) FR Abutilon Philadelphus x hybridum,voss. incanus, Philadelphaceae Malvaceae NAM GO May-Jun May-Jun FR Ara et al. Azalea Koehne. hybrids Ericaceae GO May 260 FR Amorpha Rosa x damascena, fruticosa, Mill. L. Papilionaceae Rosaceae NAM GO May-Jun May Ara Ara et et al. al. Berberis Rosa cultivars thunbergii, DC. Berberidaceae Rosaceae GO AS May Apr FR Buddleja Sambucus davidii,franch. nigra,l. Buddlejaceae Caprifoliaceae AS EU;AS Jun-Aug May-Jun Ara Ara et et al. al. Chaenomeles Solanum capsicastrum,link. lagenaria, Rosaceae Solanaceae AS SAM Mar-Apr May Ara FR et al. Koidz. Spartium junceum,l. Papilionaceae EU;AF May-Jun 040 Ara et al. Forsythia x intermedia, Zabel Oleaceae GO Mar-Apr 075 FR Fuschia Spiraea japonica,l. hybrida,voss. Rosaceae Onagraceae AS GO Jun Apr-Jun FR FR Hibiscus Spiraea prunifolia, syriacus, L. Sieb. & Rosaceae Malvaceae AS AS Apr-May Jun-Aug Ara Ara et et al. al. 83

6 Zucc. Spiraea x Vanhouttei,Zabel. Rosaceae GO Apr-May 057 FR Syringa x laciniata,mill. Oleaceae GO Apr 088 Ara et al. Syringa persica,l. Oleaceae GO Apr 249 Ara et al. Syringa vulgaris,l. Oleaceae EU Apr 174 Ara et al. Viburnum opulus,l. var. Roseum Caprifoliaceae EU;AS; AF Apr-May 212 Ara et al. Weigela florida,dc. Caprifoliaceae AS Apr-May 030 Ara et al. Table 4. Evergreen Shrubs Species Family Origin Flowering Abelia x grandiflora, Rehd. Caprifoliaceae GO Jun 247 FR Published source Aucuba japonica var Cornaceae AS May 185 FR Variegata Araucaria heterophylla, Araucariaceae SAM;AUS FR (Salisb.) Franco. Buxus sempervirens, Hook. Buxaceae EU;AS;AF Mar-Apr 099 Ara et al. Camelia japonica,l. Theaceae AS Mar-Apr 202 FR Chamaerops humilis,l. Arecaceae EU FR Citrus sinenesis,osbeck Rutaceae AS May-Jun 272 Stewart (1972) Cycas revoluta,thunb. Cycadaceae AS FR Euonymous japonicus, Thunb. Celastraceae AS Jun-Jul 035 Ara et al. Fatsia japonica,decne. Araliaceae AS Oct-Nov 117 Ara et al. Ligustrum japonicum, Thunb. Oleaceae AS Jun-Jul 054 FR Ligustrum lucidum,ait. Oleaceae AS Jun-Jul 037 Ara et al. Ligustrum ovalifolium, Hassk. Oleaceae AS Jun 179 Ara et al. Ligustrum vulgare,l. Oleaceae EU;AS; AF Jun 060 Ara et al. Mahonia aquifolium,nutt. Berberidaceae NAM Mar-Apr 227 FR Myrtus communis,l. Myrtaceae EU Jul-Sept 012 FR Nerium indicum,mill. Apocynaceae EU Jun-Jul 153 Ara et al. Schefflera actinophylla, Araliaceae AUS 214 FR Yucca aliofolia, L. Agavaceae NAM Jun-Jul 071 Ara et al. Yucca gloriosa,l. Agavaceae NAM May-Sept 036 FR Table 5. Deciduous Woody Vines 84

7 Species Family Origin Flowering Published source Campsis grandiflora,loisel. Bignoniaceae AS Jun-Aug 116 Ara et al. Campsis radicans,seem. Bignoniaceae NAM Jun-Aug 045 Ara et al. Celastrus paniculatus, Celastraceae AUS;NAM May 180 FR Willd. Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Planch. Vitaceae NAM May-Jun 062 Ara et al. Parthenocissus tricuspidata, Planch. Vitaceae AS Jun-Jul 204 Ara et al. Rosa banksiae, R.Br Rosaceae AS May 087 Ara et al. Rosa multiflora,thunb. Rosaceae AS May 110 Vitis vinifera,l. Vitaceae EU;AS May 159 Stewart (1972) Wisteria sinensis,sims. Papilionaceae AS Apr-May 218 Ara et al. Wisteria sinensis,sims. var Alba, Bailey Papilionaceae AS Apr-May 038 Ara et al. Table 6. Evergreen Woody Vines Species Family Origin Flowering Published source Hedera canariensis,willd. Araliaceae EU Sept-Oct 104 FR Hedera helix,l. Araliaceae EU Sept-Oct 098 Stewart (1972) Hedera helix,l. var Araliaceae EU Sept-Oct 149 FR hibernica,jaeg. Lonicera japonica,thunb. Caprifoliaceae AS May-Jun 044 Ara et al. Lonicera nitida,wils. Caprifoliaceae AS Apr 126 FR Passiflora caerulea,l. Passifloraceae SAM Jun-Jul 058 FR 85

8 Table 7. Ground Covers (Deciduous Shrubs) Species Family Origin Flowering Table 8. Ground covers (Evergreen Shrubs) Table 9. Bulbous Perennials & Dar) Published source Rosa rugosa,thunb. Rosaceae EU;AS May-Jul 119 FR Rosa foetida,herm. Rosaceae AS May-Jul 092 Ara et al. Species Family Origin Flowering Published source Agave americana,l. Agavaceae NAM 047 FR Lavandula angustifolia Lamiaceae EU Jun-Jul 072 FR Phormium tenax,forst. Phormiaceae AUS 065 FR Rosmarinus officinalis,l. Lamiaceae EU Mar-Apr 109 Khuroo et al. (2007) Ruscus aculeatus,l. Ruscaceae EU;AF Mar-Apr 085 FR Ruscus hypoglossum,l. Ruscaceae EU Mar-Apr 086 FR Santolina Asteraceae EU Jun-Jul 127 FR chamaecyparissus,l. Vinca major,l. Apocynaceae EU Apr-Jun 046 Reshi (1984) Vinca major,l. var variegata, Loud Apocynaceae EU Apr-Jun 273 FR Species Family Origin Flowering Alstroemeria ligtu, L Alstroemeriaceae NAM Apr-Oct 246 FR Amaryllis belladonna,l. Amaryllidaceae AF Aug-Sept 097 FR Anemone coronaria,l. Ranunculaceae EU Mar-Apr 136 FR Published source Asparagus officinalis,l. Liliaceae EU;AS; May 187 Kaul (1963) AF Canna indica,l. and Cannaceae NAM Jul-Sept 051 FR cultivars Crinum x powellii, Hort. Amaryllidaceae GO May-Jun 158 FR ex Baker Crocus sativus,l. Iridaceae AS Oct-Nov 181 Dar et al. Cyclamen persicum, Primulaceae EU;AF Aug-Nov 120 FR Mill. Dahlia sp. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Aug Gladiolus cultivars Iridaceae GO Jul-Sept Helleborus hybridus, Ranunculaceae EU Feb-Mar 173 FR 86

9 Hemerocallis fulva,l. Liliaceae EU Jun-Jul 210 Stewart (1972) Hippeastrum sp. Amaryllidaceae NAM Jul-Sept 228 FR Hosta plantaginea,asch. Liliaceae AS Jul-Sept 091 FR Hosta ventricosa,stearn. Liliaceae AS Jul-Sept 223 FR Hyacinthus orientalis,l. Hyacinthaceae EU;AS Mar-Apr 203 Stewart (1972) Iris ensata,thunb. Iridaceae AS Apr-May 084 Reshi (1984) Iris germanica,l. Iridaceae EU Apr-May 215 Kaul (1986) Iris reticulata, M.Beib. Iridaceae EU Mar 105 Stewart (1972) Kniphofia uvaria,hook. Liliaceae AF Jun-Oct 154 FR Lilium regale,wils. Liliaceae AS Jun-Jul 143 FR Lilium auratum, Lindl. Liliaceae AS Jun-Jul 270 FR Muscari botryoides,mill. Hyacinthaceae EU Mar-Apr 209 FR Narcissus poeticus,l Amaryllidaceae EU Mar-Apr 066 FR Narcissus Amaryllidaceae EU Mar-May 243 Stewart (1972) pseudonarcissus,l. Narcissus tazetta,l. Amaryllidaceae EU Feb-Mar 135 Stewart (1972) Narcissus cultivars Amaryllidaceae GO Feb-May Nerine x bowdenii,wats. Amaryllidaceae AF Sept 108 FR Ornithogallum Liliaceae EU;AS; Mar-Apr 222 FR umbellatum,l. AF Paeonia lactiflora, Pall. Paeoniaceae AS May 271 FR Ranunculus asiaticus,l. Ranunculaceae EU;AS; AF Apr-May 157 Khuroo et al.(2007) Sternbergia lutea, Roem. Amaryllidaceae EU;AS Feb-Mar 059 FR & Schult. Tulipa cultivars Liliaceae EU;AS Apr-May Tradescantia Commelinaceae NAM May 148 FR pallida,hunt. Purpurea Tradescantia virginiana, Commelinaceae NAM May 205 FR L. Tradescantia Commelinaceae NAM May 095 FR sillamontana, Matuda Zantedeschia aethiopia, Spreng. Araceae AF Apr-Jun 197 Stewart (1972) Table 10. Non bulbous Perennials Species Family Origin Flowering Published source Alcea officinalis,l. Malvaceae AS Jun-Aug 076 Naqshi et al. (1988) Alcea rosea, Cav. Malvaceae AS Jun-Aug 144 Naqshi et al. (1988) Anchusa azurea, Mill. Boraginaceae EU;AS; Mar-May 172 FR AF Aquilegia alpina,l. Ranunculaceae EU May-Jun 137 FR Aquilegia caerulea, Ranunculaceae NAM May-Jun 096 FR James. Aquilegia vulgaris,l. Ranunculaceae EU May-Jun 188 FR 87

10 Arundo donex,l. Poaceae EU Aug-Sept 265 Stewart (1972) Begonia semperflorens, Begoniaceae SAM Jun-Oct 081 FR Link & Otto. Bellis perennis,l. Asteraceae EU;AS Apr-Jul 134 Kaul (1986) Campanula medium,l. Campanulaceae EU May-Jun 255 FR Chrysanthemum Asteraceae EU May-Sept 093 FR coccineum, Willd. Coreopsis grandiflora, Asteraceae NAM May-Jul 183 FR Hogg. Coreopsis verticillata,l. Asteraceae NAM May-Jul 155 FR Dianthus Caryophyllaceae EU Jun-Aug 053 Stewart (1972) caryophyllus,l. Cheiranthus cheiri,l. Brassicaceae EU Mar-May 080 Stewart (1972) Euphorbia schillingii, Euphorbiaceae AS Apr 253 Radcl. Gaillardia Asteraceae NAM May-Jul 166 Stewart (1972) aristata,pursh. Gaillardia Asteraceae NAM Jun-Oct 240 FR pulchella,foug. Gazania hybrida, Asteraceae AF May-Jun 131 FR Geranium Geraniaceae EU;AS May 219 Kaul (1986) rotundifolium,l. Gerbera jamesonii, Asteraceae AF May-Oct 171 FR Bolus. Humulus lupulus,l. Cannabaceae EU;AS Aug-Sept 167 Dar et.al. Kalanchoe Crassulaceae EU Jun 266 FR blossfeldiana, Poellnitz. Lunaria annua, L. Brassicaceae EU May-Jun 206 FR Lupinus Papilionaceae NAM May-Jun 142 FR hartwegii,lindl. Lychnis coronaria, Caryophyllaceae EU May-Jun 267 Reshi (1984) Desr. Matthiola incana,r. Br. Brassicaceae EU Apr-May 254 Stewart (1972) Pelargonium x Geraniaceae AF May-Oct 245 FR hortorum, Bailey. Pelargonium x fragrans, Geraniaceae AF May-Oct 090 FR Willd. Pelargonium peltatum, Geraniaceae AF May-Oct 232 FR Ait. Pelargonium x Geraniaceae AF May-Oct 184 Stewart (1972) zonale,ait Phlox paniculata,l. Polemoniaceae NAM Jun-Aug 268 FR Physalis alkekengi,l. Solanaceae EU;AS May 198 FR Primula Primulaceae EU Mar-Apr 170 FR (Polyantha cultivars) Primula Primulaceae EU;AS Mar-Apr 193 FR (Primrose cultivars) Rudbeckia hirta,l. Asteraceae NAM Jun-Aug 129 FR Sedum Crassulaceae NAM Jul-Sept 269 FR clavatum,clausen. Senecio bicolour,viv. Asteraceae EU Jul-Sept 257 FR Solidago canadensis,l. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Aug 048 FR Table 11. Annuals/ Seasonals Species Family Origin Flowering 88

11 Published source Aegeratum Asteraceae NAM;SAM Jul-Sept 145 FR haustonianum, Mill. Alyssum maritimum,lam. Brassicaceae EU Apr-May 050 FR Amaranthus caudatus,l. Amaranthaceae NAM Jul-Oct 233 Reshi (1984) Amaranthus creuntus,l. Amaranthaceae NAM;SAM Jul-Oct 128 Stewart (1972) Amaranthus Amaranthaceae NAM Jul-Oct 237 FR hypochondriacus, Rob. Amaranthus tricolour, L. Amaranthaceae AS Jul-Oct 077 Stewart (1972) Antirrhinum majus,l. Scrophulariaceae EU May-Jul 169 Stewart (1972) Calendula officinalis,l. Asteraceae EU Apr-Jun 194 Stewart (1972) Callistephus Asteraceae AS Aug-Oct 061 FR chinensis,cass. Capsicum annum,l. var Solanaceae NAM;SAM Aug-Oct 079 FR Conoides, Bailey. Celosia argenteacristata, Amaranthaceae AS Jul-Oct 241 FR Kuntze. Celosia argenteaplumosa, Amaranthaceae AS Jul-Oct 217 FR Hort. Chrysanthemum Asteraceae AS May-Sept 190 FR carinatum,l. Centaurea cyanus,l. Asteraceae EU May 132 FR Centaurea moschata,l. Asteraceae EU May 234 FR Clarkia pulchella,pursh. Onagraceae NAM;SAM May-Jun 107 FR Cleome spinosa,l. Capparidaceae NAM Aug-Sept 083 FR Coleus blumei,benth. Lamiaceae AS;AF; Jun-Jul 251 FR AUS Coreopsis tinctoria,nutt. Asteraceae NAM May-Jun 199 FR Cosmos bipinnatus,cav. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Oct 078 FR Delphinium ajacis,l. Ranunculaceae EU May-Jun 238 Stewart (1972) Dianthus barbatus,l. Caryophyllaceae EU;AS May-Jun 141 Stewart (1972) Dianthus chinensis,l. Caryophyllaceae EU;AS May-Jun 069 FR Dianthus deltoides,l. Caryophyllaceae EU;AS May-Jun 106 FR Dianthus plumaris,l. Caryophyllaceae EU Jun-Aug 236 FR Eschscholtzia Papaveraceae NAM Mar-May 049 Stewart (1972) californica, Cham Godetia amonea,den. Onagraceae NAM May-Jun 208 Khuroo et al. (2007) Gomphrena globosa,l. Amaranthaceae SAM Jul-Oct 139 Stewart (1972) Gypsophila elegans,bieb. Caryophyllaceae EU;AS May-Jun 256 FR Helianthus annuus,l. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Sept 147 Stewart (1972) Helianthus multiflorus,l. Asteraceae GO Jul-Sept 231 FR Helichrysum Asteraceae AUS May-Oct 192 FR bracteatum,andr. Iberis amara,l. Brassicaceae EU Mar-May 165 Stewart (1972) Iberis umbellata,l. Brassicaceae EU Mar-May 220 FR Impatiens balsamina,l. Balsaminaceae AS Jul-Sept 163 Stewart (1972) Ipomoea purpurea,lam Convolvulaceae NAM Jun-Jul 263 Reshi (1984) Linaria bipartita,willd. Scrophulariaceae AF Apr-May 250 FR Linaria Scrophulariaceae AF Apr-May 138 FR macroccana,hook. Myosotis Boraginaceae EU Mar-Apr 156 FR sylvatica,hoffm. Nemophila Hydrophyllaceae NAM Jun-Aug 089 FR 89

12 maculata,benth. Papaver nudicaule,l. Papaveraceae EU May 239 FR Papaver rhoeas,l. Papaveraceae EU;AF May 164 Kaul (1986) Petunia hybrida,vilm. Solanaceae SAM Jun-Nov 195 Khuroo et al. (2007) Phlox drummondii,hook. Polemoniaceae NAM May-Jul 244 Stewart (1972) Portulaca Portulaceae SAM Jul-Sept 094 FR grandiflora,hook. Salvia horminum,l. Lamiaceae EU May 221 FR Salvia splendens,sello. Lamiaceae SAM Jul-Oct 146 FR Saponeria ocymoides,l. Caryophyllaceae EU Apr-Jun 196 FR Silene schafta,gmel. Caryophyllaceae EU May 067 Stewart (1972) Tagetes erecta,l. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Nov 133 Stewart (1972) Tagetes patula,l. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Nov 207 Stewart (1972) Tagetes tenuifolia,cav. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Oct 082 FR Tropaeolum majus,l. Tropaeolaceae NAM Jun-Oct 242 FR Verbena x hybrida,voss. Verbenaceae SAM Jul-Nov 191 FR Viola tricolour,l.var Violaceae EU;AS Mar-May 068 FR hortensis DC. Viola x wittrockiana Violaceae EU Mar-May 189 FR Gams. Zinnia angustifolia, Asteraceae NAM Jul-Oct 140 FR HBK. Zinnia elegans,jacq. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Oct 168 Stewart (1972) Zinnia a. haagaena, Regel. Asteraceae NAM Jul-Oct 052 FR Abbreviations AS Asia AF Africa AUS Australia EU Europe NAM North America SAM South America GO Garden Origin FR First Report Habit analysis of alien ornamental plants of Srinagar Habit Analysis of Alien Ornamentals in Campus Figure 1 Number of Species Herbs Shrubs Trees 90

13 Figure 2 Taxonomic Dispersion of Alien Ornamental Flora Monocots 15% Gymnosperms 3% 82% Dicots Figure 3 Nativity of alien ornamental plant species of Srinagar Africa South 4% America North America 20% Garden Australia origin 2% 6% 7% Asia 31% 30% Europe 91

14 Table 12. Distribution of alien ornamental plant species into various life forms 1. Deciduous trees Evergreen trees Deciduous shrubs Evergreen shrubs Deciduous woody vines Evergreen woody vines Ground covers (deciduous shrubs) Ground covers (evergreen shrubs) Bulbous perennials Non-bulbous perennials Annuals/ seasonals 60 Table 13. Top ten families of alien ornamental species S.No Family Number of species Percentage of species 1 Asteraceae Rosaceae Oleaceae Papilionaceae Salicaceae Amaryllidaceae Caryophyllaceae Liliaceae Amaranthaceae Brassicaceae

15 Top 10 families contribute 127 species with percentage of 46.86% by proportion. 42 families are represented by one genus with one species each. out of these, 30 families belong to dicots, six to monocots, and six to gymnosperms.these families include Alstroemeriaceae, Araceae, Araucariaceae, Arecaceae, Balsaminaceae, Begoniaceae, Buddlejaceae, Buxaceae, Caesalpeniaceae Campanulaceae, Cannabaceae, Cannaceae, Capparidaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cornaceae, Cycadaceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Hydrophyllaceae, Juglandaceae, Lythraceae, Meliaceae, Mimosaceae, Myrtaceae, Passifloraceae, Phormiaceae, Pinaceae, Platanaceae, Poaceae, Portulaceae, Punicaceae, Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, Simaroubaceae, Tamaricaceae, Taxaceae, Taxodiaceae, Theaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Ulmaceae, Verbenaceae. The largest genera are Prunus with 8 species, Salix and Rosa with 6 species each, Dianthus with 5 species, and Amaranthus, Ligustrum, Magnolia, Pelargonium, and Populus with 4 species each. 4. Discussion The exotic species are continuously introduced into the valley for varied purposes ( Ara et al. 1995, Dar et al. 1995, Khuroo et al. 2007) with the region hosting almost 704 alien plant species. The ornamental exotic plants are deliberately introduced for landscaping gardens, houses, parks, hospitals, public places, Hospitals and other institutions besides floriculture industry. The present assessment of ornamental plant diversity unravels ornamental horticulture as the major pathway of alien species introduction into the region. The rate of exotic species establishment and naturalization is much higher in Kashmir than depicted by Williamson s 10% rule (Williamson 1996). Our time series analysis revealed that almost 80% of exotic ornamental plant species introduced in the valley established nicely with almost 50% naturalizing in quick succession. The proportion of invasive and potential invasive species is alarmingly high and significantly deviating from Williamson s 10% law. This high proportion of alien invasive species is attributed to the high degree of disturbance, less diversity, availability of barren wastelands in the region and above all niche conservatism based human selection and introduction of alien species. The exotic species with simulating niches or niche conservatism find it easy to establish and naturalise thus enhancing values of establishment and invasion. The establishment of few individuals of an exotic species encourage the private and government agencies related to floriculture to traffic more propagules into the region, thus enhancing the propagule pressure to the maximum limits. The high rate of exotic species establishment in the valley confirms the fact that temperate biomes and 93 ecosystems are prone to biological invasions than tropical ecosystems as proposed by Elton (1958). The tropical ecosystems harbour highest diversity which lends stability to these ecosystems. The high stability ecosystems resist invasion than less stable ones that are less diverse like temperate ecosystems (Kennedy et al 2002, Milbau and Nijs 2004). The high rate of establishment and naturalisation in this temperate pocket can also be attributed to possible richness of vacant niches. Our study does not conform to Williamsons tens law and suggests that human assistance of selection, introduction and establishment of exotic species change the contour of tens law to multiple folds ahead. The exotic flora of the valley is changing the composition, and altering structure and function of this valuable ecosystem. The invasive species are eroding the genetic diversity of the region and are posing threat to the biodiversity. The alien invasive species are penetrating deep into the forests of this region thus threatening their survival and sustenance. Cronon (1983) and Oak (1998) held the same concern for the forests of North America, which have been exposed to peak introductions of invasive organisms. The alien species driven forest damage can manifest in climate change which can drive major changes in socio-economic and other life attributes in the region, as predicted by Ehrlich and Mooney (1983) for invaders which alter the host ecosystem goods and services. The state is having an agriculture based economy which is under a considerable threat of invasive species as globally invasive species are known to have staggering economic and environmental costs (Pimentel et al 2000). Tracing the origin of these alien ornamental species, the introduction pathways radiate from almost all continents and converge into Kashmir which is housing about 704 species of alien plants. Most of the alien ornamental species in the region owe their origin to Asia (31%) followed by Europe (30%), America (24%) and Africa (7%). This depicts that ornamental horticulture is truly a major pathway of alien species introduction into Kashmir Himalayas. Smith and Silva (2004) and Wu et al (2004, a, b) also view ornamental horticulture as a major pathway of exotic species introduction. Among the 271 species of alien ornamental species explored and documented from the region, 133 are reported for the first time from the region (Table1-9). The present study will surely serve as a data base of alien ornamental flora of the region with wide economic and ecological implications. It also brings fore the potential of anthropogenic interferences to enhance rate of alien species establishment, naturalization and magnitude of invasiveness beyond the set rules and laws deduced so far form invasion biology.

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