INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND GEOSCIENCES Volume 2, No 1, 2011

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1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND GEOSCIENCES Volume 2, No 1, 2011 Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated Publishing services Research article ISSN Quantitative and Spatial Analysis of Fluvial Erosion in relation to Morphometric Attributes of Sarujharna Basin, East Singhbhum, Jharkhand M.Phil. Scholar, Post Graduate Dept. of Geography, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, West Bengal, India ABSTRACT Being the south eastern part of famous Chotanagpur Plateau of India, the Sarujharna Basin is deemed to be considered as a small museum of Indian geology and geomorphology. On the tectonically stable and frequently modified Dhanjori Highlands (south west of Singhbhum Shear Zone, copper belt) rivers like Sankh, Netra, Sarujharna, Jou, Gara etc. crave out several geomorphic architects (youth old phase) which signify the variable intensity of fluvial erosion. Having different magnitude of rock résistance and spatial variability of forest cover, the monsoonal wet dry type of climate plays a crucial role in hillslope erosion and channel erosion. The present article emphasizes on the spatial distribution and quantification of fluvial erosion taking drainage basins and slope facets as an ideal geomorphic unit. Side by side, to realize the pattern of erosion we have focused on surface runoff, length of overland flow, constant of channel maintenance, hillslope erosion model, length and number of 1 st order stream which are the indirect morphometric measurements of normal erosion. Along with it Geographical Information System (GIS) is used to depict the physical appearance of erosion in thematic maps. Keywords: Morphogenetic region; surface runoff; length of overland flow; constant of channel maintenance; hillslope erosion model; erosion intensity and GIS 1. Introduction Erosion is a natural process of Earth s environment. It is the progressive removal of soil or rock particles from the parent mass by a fluid agent (here only water erosion is considered). Variations of slope and relief, drainage networks and typical landforms are the glimpses of erosion and also result of tectonic activity. The whole process of water erosion is divided into two forms of erosion: (1) channel erosion and (2) slope erosion. Denudation of the surface starts from rain beat and under the force of gravity, on a slope a vector is added to the movement of particles. We know that little of the earth s topography is older than Tertiary and most of it no older than Pleistocene. So most of the landscape details have been produced during the current cycle of erosion, but there may exist many planation surfaces. Side by side in the monsoonal wet dry type of climate rainfall and temperature play a significant role in magnitude of geomorphic processes. Submitted on July 2011 published on September

2 Being a store house of rich mineral deposits, Dhanjori Highlands of East Singhbhum has carried out the museum of erosional landforms of Subarnarekha River system. It is very tough to estimate, regionalize and show the patterns of fluvial erosion, but the significant quantitative basin analysis by Horton, Strahler, Schumm, Chorley, Melton etc. assist us in the actual representation of ground reality, taking contours as a major tool. Morphometric measurements and its spatial representation can be considered as indirect tools to realize the different forms of fluvial erosion. The main study is based on the Sarujharna Basin which has highest elevation of 570 m and lowest elevation of 98 m from mean sea level respectively. 2. Objectives of the Study While the drainage basin is considered as an open system or a combination of numerous sub systems, then a large number of processes operate in this unit. Erosion processes are the basic functions of input output system of a basin. In every geomorphic study always a new fact is come into view from spatio temporal analysis of fluvial erosion patterns of a basin (from a different angle of view). So it is worthwhile to tell the objectives of this erosional study. These are as follows: 1. Understanding the role of climate to the degree of geomorphic processes; 2. Estimation of primary erosion process, i.e. surface runoff; 3. Analyse the Basin slope and its relation with other parameters; 4. Assess several essential morphometric index and its spatial distribution based on drainage networks and contours to understand variable magnitude of water erosion; 5. Mapping the spatial distribution of erosion intensity; and 6. Modelling the hillslope erosion to provide a brief view of sediment yield and soil loss. 3. Method and Techniques The emphasis of the geomorphic study has been laid on in depth study of contours, field works, recording data, empirical observation, thematic map and statistical interpretation. The whole study is divided into (1) quantitative approach and (2) process form approach. The quantitative approach of geomorphology is focused on the numerical measurement of the geomorphic unit with special emphasis on the linear aspects, because it serves the successful proof of some empirical analysis of fluvial erosion. The process form approach is emphasised on the forms of the earth, slope variations, drainage networks and water erosion (i.e. sheet erosion, slope erosion and channel erosion). The sub basins of 4th order Sarujharna Basin (e.g. thirty sub basins of 1 st, 2 nd and 3 rd stream orders) and slope facet are taken as ideal geomorphic unit of study. To make successful the analysis, we have used geological map (Geological Survey of India, 2001), toposheets of 73 J/6 and J/7 (Survey of India, 1977), Landsat TM satellite image (2006), SRTM data of 90 m resolution (2008) and numerous literatures. Here all the fluvial 72

3 morphometric analysis is derived from the pioneer works of Horton, Strahler, Schumm, Chorley etc. Most of the statistical works and calculations are done in SPSS 14.0 software. Raw image processing, geo referencing of toposheet, shape file creation of basin boundary, sub setting of satellite and SRTM and contouring are done in ERDAS 9.1 and ArcGis 9.2. After preparing a geo referenced base map, all the thematic maps are prepared in MapInfo 9.0 software. 3.1 Location of Study Area The Sarujharna Basin is a 4 th order Basin (NW SE orientation and area: km 2 ) of the river system of Sankh which itself is a tributary of the Subarnarekha River. The basin is situated in the Musaboni block of East Singhbhum district (Jharkhand). Longitudinal extension of the basin is E to E and latitudinal extension is N to N (figure 1 and 2). Figure 1: Satellite Standard FCC image of Sarujharna Basin (2006) 73

4 Figure 2: Location Map of Study Area 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Geological Setting The study of the geology of Singhbhum was done by many scholars like H.C. Jones (1922), Dunn (1929, 1934, 1940), Iyer (1932), Krishnan (1935), Dunn and Dey (1942) etc. According to Jones the region has the glimpse of Dharwar formation. From the Arachean to the recent alluvium, all the formations with their striking individuality are present here. The following sequence of lithology is widely acclaimed (Satpathi, 1965). 74

5 Table 1: Geology of the Southern Singhbhum Region Dhanjori Stage Chaibasa Stage Tertiary Deposits and recent Alluvium Kolhan Sediments Singhbhum Granite Basic Rocks, Lavas and Tuffs Iron ore Stage Sandstone and Conglomerate Conglomerate Granite Gneiss Granophyres Mica Schists Source: S. C. Mukhopadhyay, 1980, p.241 and 242 Felspathic Schists and Phyltite At south of the copper belt zone, the presence of Dhanjori sandstone conglomerates provides good examples of sedimentation of a geosynclines (Dhanjori basin). On this almost peneplained surface Dhanjori lavas were poured (Satpathi, 1981). During the Tertiary period the peneplained surfaces were uplifted to different elevations during Oligocene, mid Miocene, and Pliocene Pleistocene. On this complex geological platform the rivers like Subarnarekha, Sankh, Garra, Netra, Katra etc. carved out a jumble of variety of landforms. Highest relief is associated with hard gneiss, quartzite, basalt and epidiorite and low relief is associated with mica schist and phyllites. Dhanjori group of rocks (coarse basic tuff, quartzite, schistose rocks and epidirote) occurs as bands aligning more or less along NW SE direction. 4.2 Other Physical Conditions It is the south eastern part of the Chotanagpur plateau, having a monsoonal climate but according to Koppen s classification the region experiences Savanna climate (A W ). In the summer season (March May) the mean monthly temperature lies between 29 to 35 0 C and in winter season (November February) the mean monthly temperature ranges from 14.6 to C. The average amount of rainfall ( ) ranges between 100 to 150 cm. Based on climate at present 50.98% of the total basin area is covered under dry deciduous (Mahua, Asan, Palas etc.) and dry peninsular Sal forest. There is a Murakanjia reserved forest and a Kundaluka protected forest within the Musaboni block. The soils of the region vary from red loamy soil to laterite soil. The presence of iron oxide, morum beds (duricrust) and deep chemical weathering are chief features of pedogenesis. 75

6 4.3 Morphogenetic Processes and Drainage Basin Characteristics In accordance with the climatic mode of interactions, i.e., the total complex of current exogeneic processes and also according to the typical relief forms actually produced in every climatic zone by the processes, the land surface of the earth can be divided into numerous climate morphological zones or morphogenetic regions by different geomorphologists. Budel (1944, 1948) has suggested the existence of the form kreisen or what may be called morphogenetic region. The concept of a morphogenetic region implies that under a certain set if climatic conditions particular geomorphic processes will predominate and give to the landscape characteristics which will set it off from landscapes developed under different climatic conditions (Thornbury, 1969). The chief features of this typical morphogenetic region are as follows: 1. The region belongs to Moderate to Selva morphogenetic region (Peltier, 1950) and according to Chorley, Schumm and Sugden s model (1984) the Tropical Wet Dry morphogenetic processes (Savanna, tropical sheetwash zone) are operated here; 2. It has been found that rain splash, sheetwash, overland flow, chemical weathering and flash floods are the unique pedo geomorphic processes operating in this region. Seasonal water table fluctuations allow a complex capillary migration and leaching of dissolved constituents in the continuous flow zone; 3. The major factor of laterite formation over Granite is climate. It is generally agreed that alternating conditions of wet dry are needed for sesquioxide precipitation. The higher the temperature of percolating water the more effective it is in decomposing the rocks and lowering the silica content; and 4. Leading geomorphic processes high pluvial erosion rate, Minimum to moderate mechanical weathering, chemical weathering (seasonal maximum, accelerated by water, giving deep weathering and two weathering zones, at the surface and at the weathering front; surface crusts of Al and Fe generated during dry seasons), mass wasting (mod. max.), fluvial processes (mod. max. highly seasonal sheet floods, rill wash and channel flow), wind action (min. mod.), seasonal rain splash and sheetwash erosion and laterisation. The fundamental step in quantitative basin analysis is the demarcation of basin area and the stream orders following a system introduced by Strahler (1952). The Sarujharna Basin is sub divided into twenty 1 st order basins, six 2 nd order basins, four 3 rd order basins and final 4 th order main basin. To understand the overall morphometric signatures of the basin (table 2) the following indices are employed mean basin area in km 2 (A u ), drainage density (D d ), ruggedness number (R n ), relief ratio (R h ), constant of channel maintenances (C), length of overland flow (L g ), mean channel slope (S c ), mean ground slope (S g ), maximum valley side slope (θ max ) and elongation ratio of basin shape (R e ). 76

7 Table 2.Mean morphometric properties of sub basins Basin A u D d R n R h C L g S c S g θ max R e 1st order nd order rd order th order Source: computed by authors 4.4 Estimation of Surface Runoff After the depression storage of precipitation the rest of the precipitation falling on the catchment area, after satisfying the infiltration demand, is temporarily detained on the ground surface and when sufficient depth is built up it travels over the ground surface towards the stream channels in the form of minor rivulets. This is called the overland flow. Table 3: Computation of Annual Runoff of Sarujharna Basin (after Khosla, 1949) YEAR Runoff (R A ) in mm Total Rainfa ll in mm Source: Computed by authors Surface runoff is defined as that part of the total runoff which travels over the ground surface to reach a stream channel and then through the channel to reach the basin outlet (Reddy, 2008). Therefore, estimation of surface runoff is provided an idea of volume of water required for erosion and transportation in a drainage basin. Based on the assumptions that mean temperature can be taken to be a complete measure of all the factors that are responsible for the losses of water, A.N. Khosla proposed the following formula for runoff. The loss in any month Lm is computed from Lm=5. Tm (for Tm>4.5 C), where Tm is the mean temperature in the month m in C. then the runoff for the month m is Rm= Pm Lm (Rm>=0), where Pm is the precipitation in the month m in mm. the annual runoff R A in mm is then given by R A = sum of Rm (Reddy, P.J.R.,2008). From this analysis it is observed that except 1995 the amount of surface runoff was increased,.7 77

8 which means that it creates acceleration of overland flow, slope erosion and sediment production (figure 3). SACTTER WITH REGRESSION LINE TOTAL ANNUAL RUNOFF IN mm y = x R 2 = p2/p Figure 3: With increasing concentration of annual rainfall (p 2 /P), annual runoff is increased (here p is the rainfall in the month with greatest precipitation and P is the mean annual precipitation) 4.5 Gradient Aspect of Drainage Basin and Channel Networks The area under study, a drainage basin or any other selected area, will have to be grouped into different elevation zones, for each of which the average slope will have to be determined. The average slope between two contours is measured by Hanson Lowe method. Here inter contour angle of Sarujharna Basin can be calculated from the formula: tan θ = contour interval / inter contour distance. Here the Basin is subdivided into elevation zone of 50 m interval ( m). The computed mean of tangent of slope is with standard deviation of 2.66 and variance R 2 of The slope frequency distribution of 31 basins (fig 4) is positively skewed (0.367), which mean slopes are erosional origin in this basin (figure 4). It has been observed that a close quantitative relationship of power form (log S g = log S c ) between average channel slope (S c ) and average ground slope (S g ) over Sraujharna Basin having different rock type and relief. 78

9 Figure 4: Surface slope histogram Figure 5: Average slope map From the average slope map we have found that upstream segment of the Basin has increasing ground slope (11 to 19 0 ) and downstream segment has decreasing slope (5 0 to 1 0 ). High relief variation within small area produces steep slope which is depicted in the DEM (Digital Elevation Model). It generates high magnitude of surface flow concentration (kinetic energy) in the monsoonal rainfall. Therefore the map shows that northern and western portions of the Basin have more potential to generate fluvial erosion due to high degree of steepness of average ground slope (figure 5 and 6). The 79

10 downstream segment of the Basin shows aggradational slope i.e. the upstream transported materials are deposited towards mouth with increasing thickness of alluvium. Figure 6: Digital elevation model Ruggedness Index (combination of drainage density and relative relief per km 2, after R.J. Chorley, 1965) of a basin is an indicative of how much the fluvial process dissects the landscape. The high value denotes the high ruggedness of topography having high drainage density and high magnitude of relief (i.e. gorge, spur and valley). The statistical analysis reveals that basin wise maximum valley side slope (after Melton, 1958) controls the ruggedness of the basin (y = x ) i.e. high valley side slope provides high kinetic energy to water erosion and transportation of eroded materials through channels forming dissected profile of the basin (fig 7). 80

11 Ruggedness Index of Sub Basin Relation Between Maximum Valley Side Slope and Ruggedness Index y = x R 2 = Correlation: Maximum Valley Side Slope of Sub Basin Figure 7: Relation between valley side slope and Ruggedness index 4.6 Length of Overland Flow Surface runoff follows a system of downslope flow paths from the drainage divide to the nearest channel. R.E. Horton (1945) defined length of overland flow (L g ) as the length of the flow path, projected to the horizontal of nonchannel flow from a point on the drainage divide to a point on the adjacent stream channel. Lg is approximately half the average distance between stream channels and is therefore approximately equal to half the reciprocal of drainage density: L g =1/2 D d. In order to take into account the effect of slope of stream channels and ground, R. E. Horton refined this generalization to read L g =1/2 D d 1 (Sc / S g ) 2 where S c is the mean channel slope and S g is average ground slope. The spatial analysis of the distribution of L g (fig 8) reveals the fact that the basins of all orders are more advanced in the cyclic stage because these basins are characterized by higher values of L g ( ) in respect of channel slope and ground slope ratio (more sheet erosion and overland flow). In fact the L g is largely controlled and affected by geological formation, soil characteristics, plant cover, rainfall intensity and infiltration capacity. The upper catchment areas are covered with thick forest and hard rock basement (gneiss and quartzite). The result is marked reduction in overland flow but central and lower catchment areas have barren land, agricultural land, loose red loamy soil, comparatively soft schist and mica schist rocks, the result is increment in overland and sheet flow in monsoonal rainfall. Overall 1 st order basins have greater length of overland flow (more sheet flow and low channel erosion). Again L g is positively correlated with circularity ratio (r=+0.87) and elongation ratio (r=+0.83) of the basin shape. 81

12 4.7 Constant of Channel Maintenance Figure 8: Length of overland flow map Schumm (1956) used the inverse of drainage density (D d ) as a property termed constant of channel maintenance C. Thus C =1/D d =A u / sum of L u This constant, in units of square feet per foot, has the dimension of length and therefore increases in magnitude as the scale of landform units increases. Specifically, the constant C tells the drainage area required to maintain one unit of channel length and it is a measure of watershed erodibility. Regions of resistant rock type, or with a surface of high permeability so that rainfall infiltrates the soil, or with a forest cover should have a high constant of channel maintenance and a low drainage densities ranging from 1.42 to 5.6 (Morisawa, 1962). The spatial distribution of C reveals (fig 9) that 1 st order, 2 nd order, 3 rd order and 4 th order basins require km 2, km 2, km 2 and 0.39 km 2 of surface area respectively to support each linear km of channel in the Sarujharna basin. C is directly negatively correlated with drainage density (r= 0.86) and maximum valley side slope (r= 0.58). High value of C reveals the low magnitude of erodibility of surface topography due to hard geological structure and thick forest cover. Again low value of C denotes high magnitude of erodibility. Therefore, the upper catchment area is more resistant to erosion than lower portion in this particular morphogenetic system. 82

13 Figure 9: Constant of channel maintenance map 4.8 Spatial Distribution of Erosion Intensity To consider the channel erosion we have taken the number and length of 1 st order streams of Sarujharna Basin. After the discussion of slope and relief variations, now an attempt is made to match the erosion intensity with the average slope. High frequency of 1 st order streams signifies high magnitude of channel or gully erosion on hillslopes. So here the product of number and length of 1 st order streams is taken as a measure of erosion intensity per km 2 (Morgan, 1986). High erosion intensity (6 to12) is observed at the northern portion of the Basin (fig 10). The orientation of isolines has similarity with average slope map which means the regions of steep average slope guide high value of erosion intensity. Also it is found that the region of minimum length of overland flow (<0.4 km) has maximum erosion intensity (>8) which means maximum gully erosion. Though, rock resistance and forest cover play a separate role. We can compare the erosion intensity map with DEM (fig 6) to realize the strength of fluvial erosion on high relief and steep slope in the upstream section of the Basin. Erosion intensity of topography is also available as dissection index and ruggedness index which are highly correlated with average slope (r = 0.69 and 0.64 respectively). 83

14 Figure 10: Erosion intensity map 4.9 Estimation of Hillslope Erosion (sample study) Free water acquires both rotational and translation energy as it concentrates to form channelized flow. The rotational energy detaches soil by scouring. The energy of translation enables the flowing water to transport the detached material downhill. Since these energies are concentrated and applied to restricted areas of the ground surface, the flowing water carves grooves into the surface soil. In their initial stages and near the crest of slopes, these grooves are known as rills. As soon as it starts runoff promptly develops diminute rills and that portion of runoff that flows between rills is called sheet or inter rill erosion (Morgan, 1986). To measure the rill and inter rill erosion of hillslope (fig 11) we have taken web based Hillslope Erosion Model which has been developed by United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) research scientists. This model 84

15 incorporates the physically based model (kinematic wave equations) which includes the laws of conservation of mass and energy. The further information about the Hillslope Erosion Model is readily provided at web link: The main used equations of this model are put forward below. Overland flow on a plane is approximated by the kinematic wave equations: where h is the average, local flow depth (m), t is time (s), q is discharge per unit width (m 2 /s), x is distance in the direction of flow (m), r is rainfall excess rate (m/s) and the depth discharge coefficient is K. The sediment continuity equation for overland flow is: where c is total sediment concentration (kg/m 3 ), E i is interrill erosion (kg/s/m 2 ) and E r is net rill erosion or deposition rate (kg/s/m 2 ). The sediment yield equation for a runoff event as: where Q s is total sediment yield for entire amount of runoff per unit width of the plane (kg/m), Q is the total storm runoff volume per unit width (m 3 /m), C b is mean sediment concentration over the entire hydrograph (kg/m 3 ) and x is distance in the direction of flow (m). 85

16 Table 3: Prediction of rill and inter rill erosion of sample slope segment using Hillslope Erosion Model (USDA ARS) canop Slope Segment number Segment length slope 2 y cover 4 groun d cover 5 interrill rill rill detachme nt detachme nt depressio n runof f total volume 1 sediment yield 3 metr e % % % (Kg/m (Kg/m 2 ) (Kg/m 2 ) (m 3 / 2 ) m) (Kg/m )

17 Note: 1 Mean annual runoff mm for the year and soil erodibility of sandy clay loam 0.56; 3 Sediment Yield at the bottom of the hillslope T/ha; 2 slope angle was estimated by field survey using abney level; 4 canopy cover and 5 ground cover were recorded through field observations. From the above analysis it has been found that from metre length of slope total sediment yield is derived at a rate of ton/ha/year, having m 3 /m of runoff volume at the base of slope. The table 3 and figure 11 depict the rill and inter rill soil detachment in relation to soil parameters of the sample slope profile. High degree of slope steepness and long length of steep slope enhance the hillslope erosion and sediment yield with increasing runoff. 5. Conclusion Figure 11: Hill side soil erosion relationship The Sarujharna Basin has been tectonically active over a long period of time. The last tectonic event represents a stage of resumption movements along the old line of fracture (shear zone), during much later times, ranging between late Tertiary to recent. From the altimetric frequency curve we have found that there are two proper erosion surfaces (150 metre and metre respectively) which bear the imprints of upliftments. Again skewness gives a positive value (1.015), which signifies those heights are the product of long erosional processes not of aggradations. Hypsometric integral of 40% (erosional integral 60%) validates the mature stage of landform evolution. Steep escarpments of 87

18 valley sides (Kalajhor, Sasdih and Lenjobera villages) are the outcome of upstream vertical incision of Sarujharna River due to base level changes. In some parts of the Highlands have patches of laterites (over quartzites, schist and gravel bed) which were formed during Cainozoic era. It also bears the imprints of old erosion surfaces. According to Geological Survey of India (2006) the region has influenced by sheet erosion, gully erosion and deforestation types of natural hazards which contribute in sediment yield. The amount of overland flow is high in the upper and middle portion the Basin due to low permeability of metamorphic rocks and presence of thin soil cover. Implementing Fournier index (1960), it has been established that the sediment yield of the basin varies from tons/km 2 /annum which is directly correlated with the incidence of annual rainfall concentration. Above all relief, hillslope and slope length, canopy cover, drainage density, runoff, length of overland flow, mean ground slope, monsoonal rainfall concentration etc. are the chief determinants of water erosion and sediment yield (erosion of Dhanjori group of rocks) in the Sarujharna Basin. 6. References 1. Chopra, R. et.al., (2005), Morphometric Analysis of Sub watersheds, District Gurdaspur, Punjab, Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 33: Chorley, R. J., Schumm, S. A. and Sugden, D. E. (1984), Geomorphology, Methuen, London 3. Chorley, R.J. (1969), The Drainage Basin as the Fundamental Geomorphic Unit, cited in Water, Earth and Man, edited by R.J. Chorley, Methuen, London, pp Chow, V. T. (1964), Handbook of Applied Hydrology (ed), McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, pp Cooke, R.U. and Doornkamp, J.C. (1982), Geomorphology in Environmental Management, Clarendon Press, Oxford 6. Doornkamp, J.C. and King C. A. M. (1971), Numerical Analysis in Geomorphology An Introduction, Edward Arnold, London 7. Dury, G.H. (1970), River and River terraces (ed), MacMillan, London 8. Fairbridge, R. W. (1968), The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology (ed), Reinhold Book Corporation, New York. 9. Ganguli, M., (2001), Morphometric Analysis of Garua Basin, Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, 33(1), pp Ghosh, S. and Dolui, T., (2011), Paleogeomorphic and Climatic Geomorphic Study of the Singhbhum Copper Belt Region, Jharkhand, Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, 33(1), pp

19 11. Horton, R.E., (1932), Drainage Basin Characteristics, Transactions of American Geophysical Union, 13, Javed, A. et.al. (2009), Prioritization of Sub watersheds Based on Morphometric and Land Use Analysis Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques, Journal of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 37, Khan, M.A. et.al. (2001), Watershed Prioritization Using Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System: A Case Study from Guhiya, India, Journal of Arid Environments, 49, Kumar, Anil (1985), Facets of Geomorphology (ed), Thinker s library, Allahabad, pp Leopold, L.B., et.al. (1969), Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi, pp Mishra, A. et.al., (2011), Morphometric Analysis of Tons Basin, Rewa District, Madhya Pradesh, Based on Watershed Approach, Journal of Earth Science India, vol 4 (11) 17. Morgan, R. P. C. (1986), Soil Erosion and Conservation, Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow 18. Morgan, R.P.C. (1976), The Role of Climate in the Denudation System: a Case Study from West Malaysia, cited in Geomorphology and Climate, edited by E. Derbyshire, John Wiley and Sons, London 19. Morisawa, M. (1985), Rivers Forms and Processes, Longman, London 20. Mukhopadhyay, S.C. (1980), Geomorphology of The Subarnarekha Basin The Chotanagpur Plateau (Eastern India), The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 21. Nageswar Rao, K. et.al. (2010), Morphometric Analysis of Gostani River Basin in Andhra Pradesh State, India, Using Spatial Information Technology, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 1(2), pp Reddy, Jaya Rami P. (2008), A Textbook of Hydrology, University Science Press, Bangalore, pp, and Satpathi, D. P. P. (1965), An Outline in Indian Geomorphology, Rajesh publication, Allahabad. 24. Schumm, S.A., (1956), Evolution of Drainage Systems and Slopes in Badland at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, Geological Society of American Bulletin, 67,

20 25. Sen, Probhat Kumar (1993), Geomorphological Analysis of Drainage Basins, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan. 26. Sharma, H. S. (1982), Perspectives in Geomorphology: Quantitative Fluvial Geomorphology (ed), volume 2, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi 27. Singh, Savindra (2000), Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad 28. Singh, V. and Singh, U.C., Basin Morphometry of Maingra River, District Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, 1(4), pp Strahler, A.N. (1975), Physical Geography, John Wiley and Sons, New York 30. Strahler, A.N., (1957), Quantitative Analysis for Watershed Geomorphology, American Geophysical Union Transactions, 38,