Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization. Pedro T. Gomes

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1 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization Pedro T. Gomes 25 and

2 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes (Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

3 POLYMERIZATION OF VINYL MONOMERS R TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION RADICAL CATIONIC ANIONIC COORDINATION initiators: ROOR, ROOH, R-N N-R initiators: Brönsted acids, Lewis acids, stable cations initiators: alkyl or aryl lithium or sodium compounds, sodium catalysts: Ziegler-Natta, metallocenes, post-metallocenic (the only method that homo- and copolymerizes propylene and α-olefins) GENERAL MECHANISM Chain Growth INITIATION PROPAGATION CHAIN TRANSFER TERMINATION common to all types they can be suppressed when the polymerization is controlled Living polymerization

4 ZIEGLER-NATTA CATALYSTS DEFINITION: Transition Metal Compound + Metal Alkyl, Aryl or Hydride (groups4-10) (groups1,2,13and14)

6 By analogy with homogeneous metallocene catalysts Mechanism of Olefin Polymerization with Ziegler-Natta Catalysts initiation propagation metal alkylation β-hydrogen elimination or β-hydrogen transfer to the monomer migratory insertion chain transfer [Ti] heterogeneous metal site (it can also be a metallocene or a post-metallocene)

7 POLYOLEFINS Olefin = unsaturated hydrocarbon = Alkene Typical Olefin Monomers: Aliphatic monoolefins (C n H 2n ): Aliphatic diolefins (C n H 2n-2 ): Cycloolefins (C n H 2n-2 ): PLASTICS ELASTOMERS SPECIALTY POLYMERS ( COMMODITY )

8 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes (Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

9 POLYMERIZATION OF DIENES 1,3-BUTADIENE -Isotactic - Syndiotactic -Atactic 1,2-POLY(1,3-BUTADIENE) H 2 C CH CH CH 2 n CIS-1,4-POLY(1,3-BUTADIENE) TRANS-1,4-POLY(1,3-BUTADIENE) SYNTHETIC RUBBER

ISOPRENE 1,4-TRANS-POLYISOPRENE From natural

1,4-CIS-POLYISOPRENE From natural sources:

10 ISOPRENE 1,4-TRANS-POLYISOPRENE From natural sources: GUTTA-PERCHA Hard material: -Insulator -Old golf balls polymers with low percentage of 1,2 and 3,4 units 1,4-CIS-POLYISOPRENE From natural sources: NATURAL RUBBER - Hevea Brasiliensis -Guayule SYNTHETIC NATURAL RUBBER

11 SYNTHETIC RUBBER MARKET (Acrylo)Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber Chloroprene (Neoprene) Rubber Styrene-Block Copolymers Styrene-Butadiene Rubber Isobutene-Isoprene Rubber Ethylene-Propylene-Diene Monomer Isoprene Rubber Butadiene Rubber

12 STEREOREGULAR ELASTOMERS 1,4-CIS-POLYBUTADIENE ~3.2 Mton 1,4-CIS-POLYISOPRENE ~0.75 Mton Production depends on the NATURAL RUBBER market ~10.3 Mton S 8 Vulcanization S x ~ x=3 ~ 1 crosslink/ 300 RU S x MACROMOLECULAR NETWORK

14 ZIEGLER-NATTA CATALYSTS STEREOSPECIFIC CATALYSTS - POLYBUTADIENE High content (>90%) in: 1,4-cis 1,4-trans 1,2 (syndiotactic) TiI 4 + Al(iBu) 3 (1:4-5),30 ºC γ-ticl 3 + AlEt 3 Ti(OR) 4 + AlEt 3 (1:7),15 ºC CoCl 2 + Al 2 Cl 3 Et 3 (1:1000), 5 ºC Co(acac) 2 + AlEt 2 Cl + H 2 O (branched polymer) Ni(octanoate) 2 + AlEt 3 + BF 3 OEt 2 (1:17:15), 50 ºC VCl 3 + AlEt 3 (1:2),15 ºC V(acac) 3 + AlEt 3 (1:6-10), 15 C VCl 4 + AlEt 3 (1:1.8),15 ºC Cr(C 6 H 5 CN)+ AlEt 3 (1:2) Cr(C 6 H 5 CN)+ AlEt 3 (1:10) (isot.) V(acac) 3 + AlEt 2 Cl + Cl 3 CCO 2 H, 80 ºC Co(acac) 3 + AlEt 3 (1:50), 16 C U(OR) 4 + AlEt 2 Cl VOCl 3 + AlEt 3 Co(acac) 3 + AlEt 3 + H 2 O + CS 2 Nd(neodecanoate) 3 + AlR 2 Cl + AlR 3, 60 ºC V(acac) 3 + MAO (1:1000) ALLYL METAL CATALYSTS (without Alkyl Aluminium cocatalyst) M= Cr, Co, Nb, W, Rh, U, Ni

16 EXAMPLES OF ALLYL NICKEL STEREOSPECIFIC CATALYSTS X 1,4-cis 1,4-trans 1,2 Cl Br I CF 3 Ni O O O O Ni CF 3 1,4-cis ,4-trans ,2 1 4

17 INITIATION (Z-N CATALYSTS) STEREOREGULATION MECHANISM PROPAGATION Et [M]

18 STEREOREGULATION MECHANISM +L P M L X 2 M L X P X M P P M L X 1,4-cis-PB 1,2-PB P M L X 1,4-trans-PB

19 STEREOSPECIFIC CATALYSTS - POLYISOPRENE ZIEGLER-NATTA CATALYSTS High content (>90%) in: 1,4-cis 1,4-trans 3,4 TiCl 4 + AlEt 3 (Al/Ti > 1) TiCl 4 + AlEt 3 (Al/Ti < 1) Ti(OR) 4 + AlEt 3 α-ticl 3 + AlR 3 VCl 3 + AlEt 3

20 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes (Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

21 POLYMERIZATION OF ALKYNES (POLYMERIZATION OF ACETYLENE) cis-transoid trans-cisoid trans-transoid doped with oxidants(1977) (ex: I 2 ) cis insulator (σ= Ω -1 cm -1 ) trans semiconductor (σ= Ω -1 cm -1 ) Au (σ= ) Cu(σ= ) conductor σ= Ω -1 cm -1 CONDUCTION (?) Intermolecular Interchain Intergrain

22 POLYACETYLENE Insoluble (in organic solvents) Unstable in air (double bonds oxidation) Bad mechanical properties (poorly processable) the objective was to make conducting films SYNTHESIS - CATALYSTS -Ti(OBu) 4 + AlEt 3 (Natta, 1958) -Ti(OBu) 4 + AlEt 3 (Al/Ti ~ 4) (Shirakawa, 1974) good films when [Ti]<10-3 M -Ti(OBu) 4 + LiBu (Li/Ti ~ 2) high trans% -MoCl 5 + SnPh 4 -WCl 6 + SnPh 4 -NiX 2 (PR 3 ) 2 (X= Cl, Br, I) high trans%

23 POLYACETYLENE BASF METHOD(best commercial polyacetylene) -Ti(OBu) 4 + AlEt 3 (Al/Ti ~ 4) -Ti(OBu) 4 + LiBu (Li/Ti ~ 2) SOLVENT: very viscous silicone Polymers with lower content of sp 3 defects Better morphological properties (better oriented fibres) Films produced on HDPE or PP supports Stretching 7 the original length Highly oriented transparent films Doping with I 2 Ti/Al catalyst: σ= Ω -1 cm -1 (20 μm film) σ= Ω -1 cm-1 (0.1 μm film) Ti/Li catalyst: σ~ 10 5 Ω -1 cm -1 BASF abandoned this process with the appearance of new conducting polymers (more stable and processable)

24 POLYMERIZATION OF SUBSTITUTED ACETYLENES or POLYMERS: More soluble (in organic solvents) More stable in air The majority are electric insulators CATALYSTS -MoCl 5 + SnPh 4 -WCl 6 + SnPh 4 Small R groups -NbCl 5 + SnPh 4 -TaCl 5 + SnPh 4 Bulky R groups (ex: -SiR 3 )

25 MECHANISM Ti ZIEGLER-NATTA CATALYSTS (insertion mechanism) δ+ δ+ [Ti] Et δ- Mo, W, Nb, Ta (Groups 5 and 6) ZIEGLER-NATTA CATALYSTS (metathesis mechanism??) H α [M] C R H α-hydrogen elimination metal carbene δ+ δ+ metathesis δ+ δ+

26 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes(Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

27 RING-OPENING METATHESIS POLYMERIZATION (ROMP) MONOMERS: Cycloolefins and Cycloalkynes When Ziegler-Natta or metallocene catalysts based on Group 4 metals (Ti, Zr, Hf) or post-metallocene catalysts are used the polymerization occurs by Insertion (or Vinyl-addition) Polymerization: cyclobutene poly(cyclobutene) cyclopentene poly(cyclopentene) The polymers do not have double bonds in the main chain Very rigid polymers (high melting temperatures) May copolymerize with linear α-olefins (metallocene catalysts) to give amorphous copolymers BUT

28 RING-OPENING METATHESIS POLYMERIZATION (ROMP) When Ziegler-Nattacatalysts based on Group 6 metal(mo, W) or metal carbenecatalysts are used the polymerization occurs by Ring-Opening Methathesis Polymerization: cyclopentene poly(1-pentenylene) norbornene poly(cyclopentenylenevinylene) The monomer double bond is retainedin the polymer main chain The polymerization has a living character Easy block-copolymerization Ring tension favours ROMP (thermodynamically)

29 ROMP CATALYSTS ZIEGLER NATTA CATALYSTS -WCl 6 + SnMe 4 -WCl 6 + ZnMe 2 α-hydrogen elimination carbene -MoO 3 / γ-al 2 O 3 -MoCl 5 + AlEt 3 (, Natta, 1964) WELL-DEFINED CARBENE CATALYSTS t BuO Br W t BuO Br Mes N N Cl Ru Cl PCy 3 Mes Ph Schrock type catalysts Grubbs type catalysts

30 MECHANISM PROPAGATION Living polymerization

31 ASSORTED EXAMPLES OF ROMP trans good elastomer cyclopentene good elastomer cis -Tires poly(1-pentenylene) norbornene n poly(cyclopentenylenevinylene) Norsorex - Oil superabsorbent (400% elongation) -Cleaning up oil spills - Acoustic insulator -Gaskets - Anti-vibration material -Shock absorption material endodicyclopentadiene poly(dicyclopentadiene) Metton -Commercial engineering plastic for moulding

32 n cyclooctene poly(1-octenylene) Vestenamer - Minor component in elastomer blends with SBR for gaskets, brake hoses and printing rollers 1-methyl-cyclobutene 1,4-cis-polyisoprene cyclobutene 1,4-cis-polybutadiene n 2 1,5-cyclooctadiene 1-methyl-1,5-cyclooctadiene poly(1,4-cis-butadiene)-alt-poly(1,4-cis-isoprene)

33 n doped with I 2 σ= Ω -1 cm -1 Colourless, soluble, oxidizable doped with I 2 σ= 10 3 Ω -1 cm -1 1,3,5,7-cyclooctatetraene polyacetylene cyclooctyne poly(1-octynylene) R R 7-oxa-2,3-dimethyl norbornene O n M n = 10 6 in aqueous solution!! In general, the coordination polymerization experimental conditions impose strict absence of H 2 O and O 2

34 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes (Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

35 ANIONIC POLYMERIZATION MONOMERS Most reactive monomers: those containing Y substituents that stabilize carbanions (electron withdrawing by induction and/or resonance). Exs: nitro, cyano, carboxyl, vinyl, phenyl The more electron attractor group Y is, the less need for strong bases in the initiation: Exs:

36 ANIONIC INITIATORS ADDITION OF A NEGATIVE ION TO THE MONOMER ELECTRON TRANSFER TO THE MONOMER INITIATION BY ADDITION OF A NEGATIVE ION TO THE MONOMER Organolithium compounds Exs: Li-CH 3 (LiMe),Li-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 (LiBu) (soluble in inert solvents) Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals(na, K, Rb, ) -higher ionic character than those based on Li - less soluble (generally heterogeneous) Organometallic compounds of the alkaline earth metals(ca, Ba) Grignard Reagents(RMgX) LESS USED

37 INITIATION BY ELECTRON TRANSFER TO THE MONOMER - Alkali Metals in solution (of NH 3 or certain ethers) in suspension (in inert solvents sands ) supported (in alumina) H 2 C CH Y... radical anion - Alkali Metal Complexes (soluble in inert solvents) charge transfer complex (orange) Exs: charge transfer complex charge transfer complex (blue)

38 MECHANISM AND KINETICS INITIATION BY ANIONIC SPECIES Exs: Li-CH 3 (LiMe),Li-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 (LiBu) k i k p Normally, r i >> r p chains grow all at the same time If the monomer is totally consumed (conversion = 100%): Poisson distribution

39 Initiation H H H H Li Bu + C C Bu C C Li H X H X Propagation living polymer dormant species

40 If the there are no transfer agents in the reaction medium (including impurities in the solvent): LIVING POLYMERIZATION because there is no chain termination Polymers have a narrow molecular weight distributioni.e. M n /M w 1 (e.g. GPC/SEC standards) If there is no termination, the chain end is living and can be used for: chain end functionalization block copolymerization

41 CH Li Y CH Li Y CH Li Y CH Li Y Easy control of the molecular weight: Stoichiometry ( ) Routes Termination at time twith addition of a terminating agent Addition of a chain transfer agent to decrease M n Ex: new polymeric chain

42 The rate of propagation can be influenced by the degree of association between anion and cation, which depends strongly on the SOLVENT: Non-coordinating and weakly polar solvents (e.g. hydrocarbons) Higher degree of association of the initiator Lower polymerization rate (r p ) - Association of the initiator: - Association of the propagating chain: association of 2 chains coordination More coordinating and/or more polar solvents (e.g. ethers) Lower degree of association and higher solvation Higher polymerization rate (r p ) Ex: DME THF Benzene Cyclohexane

44 INITIATION BY ELECTRON TRANSFER radical anion Recombination of 2 radical anions: propagation Dianionic chain with 2 propagation centres TELECHELIC POLYMERIZATION average kinetic chain length

45 Initiation radical anion radical recombination Propagation living telechelic polymer dormant species Telechelic chain growth(chain growth at both ends)

46 Functionalization of both chain ends: Li CH Y CH Li Y Li CH Y CH Li Y Li CH Y CH Li Y Li CH Y CH Li Y

47 STEREOCHEMISTRY OF PROPAGATION 1,4-cis-polyisoprene (>95%) independent of T CH 2 Li 1,4-cis-polybutadiene (majority) CH 2 Li Polar solvent (THF) Low T Non-polar solvent Syndiotactic PMMA Isotactic PMMA The Li+ counter-cation always assists the chain growth by bonding covalently to the chain end, protecting it and avoiding chain termination or chain transfer reactions

48 ANIONIC RING OPENING POLYMERIZATION EPOXIDES O 4 Types of Monomers CYCLIC LACTAMS AND LACTONES N-CARBOXYANHYDRIDES CYCLIC SILOXANES SiR 2 O Some examples have already been given in the Step-Growth Polymerization EPOXIDES Ex: Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)

49 LACTAMS Ex: Nylon 6 N-CARBOXYANHYDRIDES Ex: B -CO 2 CYCLIC SILOXANES Ex: R H C CH N O M Polypeptide (M n ~10 6 ) Polysiloxane

50 ANIONIC COPOLYMERIZATION BLOCK COPOLYMERIZATION (COMONOMERS ADDED SEQUENTIALLY) Owing to the living nature of anionic polymerization (absence of chain transfer and chain termination reactions) and easy control of molecular weight, this technique is very much used in block copolymerization Ex: From mononegative chains Ex: Polystyrene-block-1,4-cis-Polybutadiene it swells in H 2 O soluble in H 2 O non-ionic surfactant, anti-foaming, thickener, wetting agent (Pluronic ) Poly(propylene oxide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide)

51 COMPATIBILIZERS OF IMMISCIBLE POLYMER BLENDS AB BLOCK COPOLYMERS ARE COMPATIBILIZERS Example: commercial SB (polystyrene-b-polybutadiene) Blends of polybutadiene and polystyrene are immiscible AB copolymers improve the adhesion between phases and compatibilize them

52 Sequential polymerization of different monomers (with total monomer consumption) is possible due to the living nature of the polymeric chain end. The preparation of the following types of block copolymers can be performed: AAAAAABBBBBB DIBLOCK AB TYPE AAAAAABBBB BBBBCCCCCC TRIBLOCK ABC TYPE AAAAAABBBB BBBBAAAAAA TRIBLOCK ABA TYPE [ AAAAAABBBBBB ] n MULTIBLOCK [AB] TYPE

53 From dinegative chains 2n Triblock SBS copolymer The ABA copolymers are thus obtained in 2 steps whereas from mononegative initiators is obtained in 3 steps Star-block copolymers Living AB block copolymer Star-block copolymer (or radial copolymer) When melted, star-block copolymers exhibit lower viscosities, even when M n are high

THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS (TPE) ABA BLOCK COPOLYMERS ARE THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS (A= rigid polymer; B= flexible polymer) Example: commercial SBS (polystyrene-b-polybutadiene-b-polystyrene) -PB blocks

54 THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS (TPE) ABA BLOCK COPOLYMERS ARE THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS (A= rigid polymer; B= flexible polymer) Example: commercial SBS (polystyrene-b-polybutadiene-b-polystyrene) -PB blocks ca.m n = PS blocks ca.m n = Semicrystalline blocks at the ends (S) tend to aggregate in microdomains, whereas amorphous central blocks (B) form the matrix Aggregation elastic behaviour physical crosslinks

55 NORMAL COPOLYMERIZATION (COMONOMERS MIXED IN THE FEED) Relatively few reactivity ratios have been determined for anionic normal copolymerization

56 POLYMER ARCHITECTURES ACCESSIBLE BY LIVING POLYMERIZATION Monofunctionalized polymers Dispersing agents Synthesis of macromonomers Difunctionalized polymers Synthesis of elastomers Crosslinking agents AB block copolymers Dispersing agents Compatibilizers of polymer blends ABA block copolymers Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) Graft copolymers Elastomers Adhesives Comb polymers Elastomers Adhesives

57 Star polymers/ copolymers Rheology control Ladder polymers/ copolymers High temperature plastics Membranes Elastomers Cyclic polymers Rheology control Amphiphilic networks Biocompatible polymers

58 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes (Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

59 RING-OPENING POLYMERIZATION (ROP) Types of Monomers (heterocyclic rings) EPOXIDES CYCLIC LACTAMS, LACTONES AND DILACTONES N-CARBOXYANHYDRIDES CYCLIC CARBONATES CYCLIC SILOXANES SiR 2 O C (CH 2 ) n NH, (CH 2 ) n C O O, O R O O R O O EPOXIDES Ex: Polyethers[Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)]

60 Main catalytic systems used for the coordination ROP of epoxides

61 LACTAMS Ex: Polyamides[nylon 6 or poly(ε-caprolactam) (n=5)] LACTONES Ex: Polyesters[poly(ε-caprolactone)] (n=5)

62 DILACTONES Monomers, polymers and copolymers Polyesters

63 Catalysts used for coordination ROP of lactide

64 Synthesis of stereoregular PLAs by ROP Crystalline T m = ºC Amorphous

65 Synthesis of polycarbonates by ROP [Zn] mediated living ROP of trimethylene carbonate

66 N-CARBOXYANHYDRIDES Ex: Polypeptide (M n ~10 6 ) CYCLIC SILOXANES Ex: Polysiloxane

67 Metal-Catalyzed Polymerization (Coordination Polymerization) - Polymerization of Olefins(Insertion) Prof. Barbara Milani - Polymerization of Dienes (Insertion) - Polymerization of Alkynes - Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) - Classical Anionic Polymerization - Ring Opening Polymerization (ROP) - Metal-mediated Radical Polymerization

68 FREE RADICAL POLYMERIZATION INITIATION addition of the radical initiator to the monomer It involves: Monomer + Radical Initiator STEPS PROPAGATION radical chain growth by sequential addition of monomers CHAIN TERMINATION death of the radical propagating species by reaction with other radical species CHAIN TRANSFER growing chain reacts with a neutral molecule and abstracts one of its atoms, the latter becoming a new radical INITIATION PROPAGATION TERMINATION CHAIN TRANSFER

69 MECHANISM OF CLASSICAL FREE RADICAL POLYMERIZATION (GENERAL) INITIATION RO OR 2 OR Initiator decomposition Addition of initiator radical to monomer PROPAGATION RO CH 2 H CH CH 2 CH C Y Y n H H C Y Sequential addition of monomers to radical growing chain CHAIN GROWTH mer

70 TERMINATION Recombination (or Coupling)(low temperatures) Recombination of 2 radical growing chains 1 neutral chain (molecular weight doubles) Disproportionation(high temperatures) Abstraction of a β-h atom α β 2 neutral polymer chains

71 CHAIN TRANSFER to the Monomer Step responsible for the decrease in molecular weight and for the broadening of the molecular weight distribution n H H C C H Y new chain 1 neutral polymer chain 1 radical H H to a Transfer Agent n C C H Y RO CH 2 H CH CH 2 CH C Y Y n H C H Y + R X transfer agent 1 neutral polymer chain 1 radical

72 to the Polymer (very high temperatures) 1 neutral polymer chain 1 internal radical polymer chain n H H C C H Y Y CH CH 2 BRANCHING

73 CONTROLLED RADICAL POLYMERIZATION (CRP) Absence of TERMINATION or CHAIN TRANSFER Living Polymers (Living Polymerization) Living Chain Ends Molecular Weight Control Narrow Molecular Weight Distribution Block Copolymers Several Techniques of CRP (examples) -ATRP -OMRP -NMP -RAFT SFRP SFRP = Stable Free Radical Polymerization

74 ATOM-TRANSFER RADICAL POLYMERIZATION (ATRP) Initiator: Organic halide undergoing a reversible redox catalyzed by a transition-metal complex Ex: k act k deact initiator complex k p deactivator k act k deact [(bpy)cu II Br 2 ] Poisson distribution H 3 C CH CH 2 CH CH 2 CH n Br + Br Cu I N N dormant species

75 COMMON LIGANDS (L) OF ATRP

77 Cycloalkenes and cycloalkynes Alkynes ( R )

78 BIBLIOGRAPHY -M. P. Stevens, "Polymer Chemistry -An Introduction", 3rd ed., Oxford Univ. Press, G. Odian, Principles of Polymerization, 4th ed., Wiley-Interscience, N.Y., B. Cornils, W. A. Herrmann (Eds.), Applied Homogeneous Catalysis with Organometallic Compounds: A Comprehensive Handbook in Three Volumes, 2nd ed., Volume 1, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002; Ch G. W. Coates, M. Sawamoto (Eds.), Chain Polymerization of Vinyl Monomers, Volume 3 of K. Matyjaszewski, M Möller (Eds.), Polymer Science: a Comprehensive Reference, Elsevier, Amsterdam, S. Penczek, R. Grubbs (Eds.), Ring-Opening Polymerization and Special Polymerization Processes, Volume 4 of K. Matyjaszewski, M Möller (Eds.), Polymer Science: a Comprehensive Reference, Elsevier, Amsterdam, M. Michalovic, K. Anderson, L. Mathias, The Macrogalleria, Polymer Site Learning Center site of the University of Southern Mississippi) (

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