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1 Table of contents Illustrations...xv 1 The measurement of length...1 Trundle wheel...1 Chains and tape measures...3 Distance measurement...3 Triangulation...4 Theodolites...6 Optical distance meters...8 Reflective distance meters...9 Beam-modulation telemetry...10 Global Positioning System...13 Ruler and gage blocks...14 Caliper...16 Micrometers...18 Dial indicators Angles and arcs...23 Cross staff angle measurement...25 Astrolabe and quadrant...26 Sextant...29 Levels...30 Inclinometers and laser levelers...31 Protractor and the carpenter s bevel...31 Sine-bar...32 Digital theodolites and encoders Clocks and the measurement of time...39 Water clocks...41 Gravity-driven timepieces...46 Candle clocks...49 Sandglasses...50 Mechanical clockworks...51 The foliot escapement...52
2 x Table of contents Pendulum escapement...53 Balance wheel escapement...56 Spring-driven clockworks...57 Electric clock...58 Tuning fork ratchet control...58 Crystal-controlled watches...59 Clocks and the atom...61 A truly nature-based frequency standard...62 Building an atomic clock Velocity and acceleration...65 Tachometer...65 Pickups...69 Sound and ultrasound...72 Echo sounding...75 Piezoelectric probes...76 Radar...77 Doppler shift radar...78 A glimpse at relativity...79 Velocity and acceleration...81 Liquid flow metering...83 Orifice flowmeters...85 Variable-area flowmeter...86 Positive displacement meters...87 Gasometers Force, mass, weight, and torque...93 Strain gages and the Wheatstone bridge...94 Measuring deflection...97 Crystal strain gauges...99 From levers to scales and balances Scales and weights Torque Motor torque and de Prony s brake Eddy current dynamometer Vibrations Aeolian harp the dawn of music The omnipresent vortex Waves and the sine line String theories Aeolian vibrations...122
3 Table of contents xi Practice meets theory Ill winds Wind power of the nasty kind Controlling aeolian vibrations Vibration dampers Monitoring vibration damping Terra not so firma Earthquake detection Vibration sensors Displaying signals Frequency measurement instrumentation Forced oscillations Crank mechanics Some fascinating crank-driven machinery Analog frequency meters Digital metering In comes the computer! Noncontact measurements Doppler vibrometer Thermodynamics Six s thermometer Gas thermometer Thermoelectric temperature sensors Resistance thermometry Radiation pyrometry Thermistors Calorimetry Berthelot s bomb calorimeter Specific heat capacity Nernst calorimeter Thermophore Specific heat energy of gases Apparatus of Clément and Desormes Entropy and the heat-death Pressure Mercury barometer Dial barometer Low and rough grade vacuum Once upon a time Bourdon tube manometer Membrane-actuated manometers...190
4 xii Table of contents Energy via airmail The incompressible fluids Hydraulic ram Down and under Diamond anvil cell The other face of the coin Capacitance manometer McLoid vacuum meter Pirani heat transfer manometer New age machine design Ladder diagram The not so missing link Typical applications of pneumatic cylinders Valves, the gray eminence Pneumatics and hydraulics Pressure sensors The atmosphere and the cosmos Density of solids, liquids, and gases Density and atomic mass Measurements of gas density Effusiometer Hydrogen and helium Acoustic gas density meter Density of solids Density of liquids Pycnometer Nicholson s hydrometer Mohr (Westphal) balance Hydrometer Hare s apparatus Oscillating tube densitometer Density of extrasolar objects Light and radiation Vanishing grease blot Clap hands here comes the semiconductor! The finite velocity of propagation of light I see the light! The enchanted land of lenses Binoculars The roots of white light Reflecting telescopes...258
5 Table of contents xiii Newtonian reflectors Schmidt Cassegrain telescopes From extreme to extreme Electron microscope Spectrometry Prism spectroscope Diffraction grating spectroscope Acoustics The symphony orchestra in the living room Sound propagation The wave nature of sound Audio systems The two faces of the dynamic speaker Piezoelectric transducers Technology of piezoelectrics An application of piezoelectric transducers Ribbon microphone Condenser microphones Electrostatic speakers Sound tracking Echo sounding Ultra- and hypersound Sonography Sonoluminescence Addendum Electrical and electronic instruments Volt and ampere D Arsonval galvanometer Transistorized multimeter Iron-vane instrument Bimetal ammeter Power meters Resistance meters Cross coil instruments Tenacious oddball Let s get digitized! The LED at the end of the tunnel Digital measurement of analog magnitudes Analog-to-digital conversion Successive-approximation converter Slope integrating ADC...332
6 xiv Table of contents 13 Automation instruments that think Thermostats Electronic temperature controllers Operation of ON/OFF mode controllers Luminosity control CO 2 control in exhaust gases Sulfur dioxide measurement Humidity control Moisture control Conductivity of fluids and liquids Some control theory Proportional control Pneumatic control systems Flashback to the roots of automation Bibliography For further reading Index of names Subject index...367
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