COMPLEX. Data protection in practice INTERNATIONAL SERVICE BUREAUX AND TRANS NATIONAL DATA FLOWS TERESA (17) 1/85. Jon Bing

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1 1/85 Jon Bing Data protection in practice INTERNATIONAL SERVICE BUREAUX AND TRANS NATIONAL DATA FLOWS TERESA (17) COMPLEX NORWEGIAN RESEARCH CENTER FOR COMPUTERS AND LAW UNIVERSITETSFORLAGET

2 IB M B e ig e n IBM Ham ar Pjiifcijl 2 M (,Ofi*n?7 74* IBM K n s lia n s a n d S H.iqh u'.q l 3 III i042? * liii IBM Sarp sb o rg K irke q l 63 III i03li*i/03t< IBM S ia v a n q e r Auqi»*n<)s(lai^n K l 11» D*J ifr * nn IBM T ro n d h e im - IB M Tonsb erg N edre L an q q l J3. Ill (033l IBM Ålesund Parhql 7 llf i0 / n 2 4 1«/ IBM O slo O m ;M a u fls q l tit t0 2* 2 0»4 *>0

3 I'o m p l ox no. 1/85 Norwegian Research Center lor Computers and Law University ol Oslo. Niels Juels gale OS Jon Bing Data protection in practice INTERNATIONAL SERVICE BUREAUX AND TRANSNATIONAL DATA FLOWS TERESA (17) Aknowledge is made to the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk which has funded this project U nivcrsilctsforlagcl A S O slo

4 Universiietsforlagei AS ISBN The Publicaiion of [he CompLex reports are supported by: Norwegian Bankers' Association Bergens Tidende Norwegian Employers' Confederation Norwegian Telecommunication Authority Norwegian Association for Computers and Law Norwegian Asscociation of Jurists Association of Norwegian Insurance Companies O rkla Industries Printed in Norway hv l ic S A 'S. Oslo

5 Foreword T h i s is the s e c o n d of t h e r e p o r t s d o c u m e n t i n g t h e p r o j e c t " D a t a p r o t e c t i o n in p r a c t i c e, o r g a n i z e d as p r o j e c t T E R E S A (17) in the r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on i n f o r m a t i o n l a w at t h e N o r w e g i a n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r for C o m p u t e r s a n d L a w. T h e r e s e a r c h w a s c a r r i e d o u t in t h e p e i i o d , b u t f o r p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s, t h e r e p o r t w a s d e v e l o p e d in T h e p r o j e c t g r o u p w a s a s s i s t e d b y a r e f e r e n c e g r o u p c o m p o s e d of a s s e s s o r H e r b e r t B u r k e r t of the G e s e l l s c h a f t f u e r M a t h e m a t i k u n d D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g, B o n n ; t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t o r of the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, J a n F r e e s e ; the d i r e c t o r o f the D a n i s h D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y, J ø r g e n P a u l s e n ; a n d the d i r e c t o r of t h e N o r w e g i a n D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e, H e l g e Seip. T h a n k s a r e a l s o d u e t o a l l t h o s e w h o h a v e a s s i s s t e d in i n t e r v i e w s w i t h i n t h e f o u r j u r i s d i c t i o n s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n. It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e i r h e l p a n d c o m m e n t s h a v e b e e n v a l u a b l e, t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e a s s e s s m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s r e s t w i t h t h e a u t h o r. T h e o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h t e a m w a s d i r e c t e d b y D a g F r a y s t a d, w i t h S y n n ø v e S m e d a l S u n d b y (1981) a n d A r n s t e i n Ø d e g å r d (1982) as r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n c e. A r n s t e i n Ø d e g å r d w a s in c h a r g e of t h e a c t i v i t i e s d o c u m e n t e d in t h i s r e p o r t, w h i c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n by J o n B i n g b a s e d o n t h e m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d a n d a n a l y s e s m a d e by t h e r e s e a r c h t e a m. It is c o n s e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d in h i s n a m e. O n e o t h e r r e p o r t h a v e a l s o b e e n p u b l i s h e d b a s e d o n t h i s w o r k, D a g F r a y s t a d 1s s t u d y o n m a t c h i n g e l e m e n t s a n d i d e n t y f i e r s. T h e c o m p a r a t i v e l e g i s l a t i v e r e v i e w d e v e l o p e d by t h e r e s e a r c h t e a m w i l l not be p u b l i s h e d as a s e p a r a t e r e p o r t, b u t is a v a i l a b l e in m a n u s c r i p t.

6 F o r t h i s r e p o r t, t h a n k s a r e d u e to p r o f e s s o r K n u t S Selraer a n d D a g F r a y s t a d, w h o h a v e c o m m e n t e d u p o n t h e d r a f t r e p o r t ; to G u n n a r B a c h w h o h a s m a d e the a p p r o x i m a t i o n to E n g l i s h c l o s e r t h a n t h e a u t h o r w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to do on h i s o w n, a n d to T o n e S u t t e r u d w h o h a s h e l p e d in c o r r e c t i n g a n d p r e p a r i n g the f i n a l v e r s i o n. T h a n k s a r e a l s o d u e t o t h e S t i f t u n g V o l k s w a g e n w e r k, w h i c h h a s b e e n p a t i e n t l y w a i t i n g for t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n of t h e w o r k it h a s f i n a n c e d. S k i l l e b e k k, D e c e m b e r 1984

7 C o n t e n t s 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n A c t o r s a n d i n t e r e s t s... 7 (1) D a t a s u b j e c t s... 7 (2) F o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x... 7 (3) N a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x... 8 (4) C u s t o m e r s... 9 (5) G o v e r n m e n t s (6) C o n c l u s i o n s S w e d e n U s e of f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x (1) T h e e m b o s s i n g c a s e (2) T h e p u b l i s h i n g c a s e (3) A s s e s s m e n t of t h e 1974 c a s e s (4) T h e U n i v a c c a s e (5) T h e M a l m o e f i r e b r i g a d e c a s e (6) B a c k u p s e r v i c e a b r o a d U s e of p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y w i t h i n a c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n - the S W I F T c a s e U s e of a f f i l i t a t e d s e r v i c e b r u e a u a b r o a d (1) T h e S i e m e n s c a s e (2) T h e T h o r n c a s e (3) T h e A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s c a s e (4) T h e P K b a n k c a s e I m p o r t of d a t a... 39

8 4. Denmark I n t r o d u c t i o n C o l l e c t i o n o f data in D e n m a r k E x p o r t of s e n s i t i v e r e g i s t e r s S e r v i c e b u r e a u x C o n c l u s i o n s N o r w a y T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y C a s e s t u d i e s D a t e m a G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c I B M L i t e r a t u r e 63

9 1 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n O n e of t h e m a j o r c o n t r o v e r s i e s w i t h i n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, h a s b e e n its p o s s i b l e i m p a c t o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e. T r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s - o r s i m p l y T D F - r e f l e c t w o r l d t r a de: in p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e t r a d e in g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s, t h e r e a r e f l o w s of d a t a - o f t r a n s p o r t d o c u m e n t s a n d d a t a, of e c o n o m i c t r a n s a c t i o n s, of n e g o t i a t i o n s, c o n t r a c t s, s t a t i s t i c s etc. T h e l e g a l i s s u e o f t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s is w i d e r t h a n the d a t a p r o t e c t i v e issue, e s p e c i a l l y if d a t a p r o t e c t i o n is d e f i n e d as t h e p r o t e c t i o n of d a t a o n p h y s i c a l p e r s o n s o n l y. N e v e r t h e l e s s, d a t a o n p e r s o n s w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y b e p a r t s o f t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s - in t h e f o r m o f d a t a on v e n d o r s, b a n k i n g c l i e n t s etc. In t h e l a t e i e s t h e f o c u s of t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t r a n s n a t i o nal d a t a f l o w s has, h o w e v e r, not b e e n p l a c e d p r i m a r i l y o n t h i s g e n e r a l i s s u e - b u t r a t h e r o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of " r e g i s t e r s " o u t s i d e n a t i o n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n. In all t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n s e x a m i n e d in t h i s r e p o r t, the s u b j e c t for r e g u l a t i o n is a s y s t e m of p e r s o n a l d a t a - t h e d e f i n i t i o n of w h i c h v a r y b e t w e e n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n s. D a t a s u b j e c t s - ie p e r s o n s on w h o m d a t a a r e c o n t a i n e d in s u c h s y s t e m s - a r e o f f e r e d a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n u n d e r t h e n a t i o n a l law. A n o b v i o u s p r o b l e m in e n f o r c i n g s u c h a law, a n d s e c u r i n g the r i g h t s o f t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s, is the p o s s i b i l i t y of u s i n g a c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e o u t s i d e t h e n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y. T h i s c r e a t e d the f e a r of t h e " d a t a h a v e n ", in w h i c h p r o c e s s i n g o f p e r s o n a l d a t a m i g h t t a k e p l a c e in v i o l a t i o n of t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d on n a t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n g.

10 2 In o r d e r to c o n t r o l t h i s p r o b l e m, n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d p r o c e d u r e s to c o n t r o l the flow o f p e r s o n a l d a t a f r o m the t e r r i t o r y a n d t o s y s t e m s a b r o a d. T h i s w a s n o t a g e n e r a l c o n t r o l, b u t l i m i t e d to a few q u a l i f i e d s i t u a t i o n s - f o r i n s t a n c e (as in b o t h S w e d e n a n d N o r w a y ) w h e n d a t a is c o m m u n i c a t e d for t h e p u r p o s e of b e i n g i n c l u d e d into a f o r e i g n s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e if e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n the j u r i s d i c t i o n. T h e D a n i s h c l a u s e for the c o n t r o l o f t h e f l o w of s e n s i t i v e d a t a h a s a s i m i l a r j u s t i f i c a t i o n. T h e G e r m a n l e g i s l a t i o n (on f e d e r a l l e v e l a n d in the l a n d of H e s s e ) l a c k s t h e s e e x p l i c i t c l a u s e s r e g u l a t i n g t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows. T h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s o m e c o n t r o l l i n g m e c h a n i s m w o u l d s e e m q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e, as a n e c e s s a r y r a m i f i c a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n to s e c u r e that its e f f e c - t i v n e s s is n o t to u n d e r m i n e d b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g. A g a i n it s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d that it is b y n o m e a n s o b v i o u s t h a t n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n - as, i n d e e d, it m a y be q u i t e d i f f i c u l t to d e t e r m i n e w h a t a " t e r r i t o r i a l " l i m i t a t i o n s h o u l d i m p l y w h e n a p p l i e d to the d a t a p r o c e s s i n g t a k i n g p l a c e in a c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k c o v e r i n g s e v e r a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s. T h i s p r o b l e m, a l o n g w i t h the p r o b l e m o f c h o i c e of law w i t h r e s p e c t t o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n, is b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d in B i n g : , e s p e c i a l l y p W h e n i n t r o d u c e d, h o w e v e r, t h e s e c o n t r o l p r o v i s i o n s b e c a m e r a t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i a l. T h e r e a s o n w a s s i m p l y t h a t t h e c l a u s e s p e r m i t t e d a c o n t r o l e x c e e d i n g the r e q u i r e m e n t s of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n - in t h e o r y t h e y c o u l d b e u s e d to c o n t r o l v i t a l t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows, a n d t h r o u g h these, i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e. A s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C o m p a n y m a i n t a i n e d ( F r e e m. m 1980: 11) : " W h a t b e g a n as a p r o b l e m in p r i v a c y p r o t e c t i o n h a s d e v o l o - p e d i n t o a s e r i o u s p o t e n t i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s s u e. "

11 3 O r as s t a t e d by a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of C o n t i n e n t a l I l l i n o i s N a t i o n a l B a n k ( W a l k e r : 1 6 ) : " B a n k i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e t h r e a t e n e d w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w s c o u l d b e b l o c k e d by r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n. " E x a m p l e s w e r e c i t e d. F o r t h o s e j u r i s d i c t i o n s b e i n g p a r t s of o u r r e p o r t, the e x a m p l e s w i l l b e e x a m i n e d in d e p t h. B u t a few e x a m p l e s m a y be o f f e r e d as a n i l l u s t r a t i o n. It w a s r e c o m m e n d e d in a C a n a d i a n r e p o r t t h a t d a t a p r o c e s s i n g r e l a t e d to C a n a d i a n b u s i n e s s o p e r a t i o n s s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d in C a n a d a e x c e p t w h e n o t h e r w i s e a u t h o r i z e d ( F r e e m a n : 1 1 ). C o n t r o l D a t a C o r p o r a t i o n r e p o r t e d t h a t in t h e i r c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a r r i e r o f J a p a n, K o k u s a i D e n s h i n D e n w a Co. (KDD), t h e r e w e r e i n t r o d u c e d l i m i t a t i o n s to C o n t r o l D a t a ' s a b i l i t y to o f f e r c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s in J a p a n ( O n s t a d : 1 7 ). O n e w i l l n o t e t h a t t h e t w o e x a m p l e s c i t e d ( a n d w h i c h h a v e not b e e n a n a l y z e d as p a r t o f t h i s r e p o r t ) h a v e n o t t h e i r j u s t i f i c a t i o n in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t r a t h e r in t h e m o r e g e n e r a l p o l i c y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w issue. T h e y a r e e x a m p l e s of i n v i s i b l e t r a d e b a r r i e r s, b u t n o t of a d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n c r e a t i n g s u c h b a r r i e r s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, t h e E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n h a s b e e n c i t e d as t h e m a i n e x a m p l e o f s u c h i n v i s i b l e a n d p r o t e c - t i o n i s t i c b a r r i e r s. T h i s has, f o r i n s t a n c e, b e e n f o r m u l a t e d in a n o u t s p o k e n w a y by a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e for o n e of t h e e a r l y a n d m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l d a t a n e t w o r k s w h i c h o p e r a t e s on a c o m m e r c i a l b a s i s, T y m s h a r e ( B u r t e n : 2 2 ). T h i s n e t w o r k i d e n t i f i e s b a r r i e r s, o b s t r u c t i o n s a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a i n s t o p e n a n d c o m p e t i t i v e b u s i n e s s o p e r a t i o n s, e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t US i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g a n d e q u i p m e n t c o m p a n i e s :

12 4 " S o c a l l e d 1d a t a - p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n ' w h i c h i n v o l v e s a g o v e r n m e n t a l d a t a r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y e s t a b l i s h e d in e a c h c o u n t r y t o r e v i e w, i n s p e c t a n d a p p r o v e - in o t h e r w o r d s c o n t r o l - t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w s b o t h w i t h in the c o u n t r y a n d t h o s e e n t e r i n g o r l e a v i n g t h e c o u n t r y. T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n has m o s t c o m m o n l y b e e n i n i t i a t e d u n d e r t h e c o v e r o f h u m a n r i g h t s a n d t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p r i v a c y o f i n d i v i d u a l s. H o w e v e r, the c o n c e p t of a c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t y w h i c h k n o w s a n d c o n t r o l s the i n f o r m a t i o n o n all c i t i z e n s a n d c o m m e r c e s e e m s to c o n t r a d i c t, in p r a c t i c e, t h e p r o t e c t i o n of h u m a n r i g h t s. " T h i s U S a t t i t u d e is not u n c o m m o n. T u r n r e p o r t s, in h i s m a j o r s t u d y ( : 1 1 ), t h a t US b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n g a g e d in i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade: "... t e n d to s e e p r o t e c t i o n i s t p o l i c i e s as t h e t r u e r a t i o n a l e f o r d a t a p r o t e c t i o n laws in E u r o p e. " He a l s o m a i n t a i n s that this is not an u n r e a s o n a b l e v i e w ( : 1 1 ) : "... it s e e m s q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that, as t h e i r d o m e s t i c i n f o r m a t i o n i n d u s t r i e s ' c a p a b i l i t i e s i n c r e a s e, g o v e r n m e n t s w i l l r e s t r i c t s t o r a g e a n d p r o c e s s i n g o f s e n s i t i v e d a t a t o t h e i r o w n t e r r i t o r i e s, to be p e r f o r m e d b y d o m e s t i c d a t a - p r o c e s s i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s. F r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w, t h e c o n c e r n s in the U S A a p p e a r t o be w e l l j u s t i f i e d. " A l s o m o r e o f f i c i a l v i e w s h a v e the s a m e i m p l i c a t i o n s. In M a r c h, 1981 a H o u s e S u b - c o m m i t t e e on G o v e r n m e n t I n f o r m a t i o n a n d I n d i v i d u a l R i g h t s o p e n e d h e a r i n g s o n t h e c o n c e r n o v e r b a r r i e r s to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f l o w of data. T h e S u b - c o m m i t t e e c h a i r m a n, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e R i c h a r d s o n P r e y e r, s t a t e d (T D R M a y : 7 ) : " U n i t e d S t a t e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c o m p a

13 5 n i e s h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d a v a r i e t y of r e s t r i c t i o n s 011 e n t r y in t o f o r e i g n m a r k e t s. S o m e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s c o m p l a i n that n a t i o n a l ' d a t a p r o t e c t i o n ' l a w s a n d r e l a t e d a c t i o n s b y o u r i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d i n g p a r t n e r s r e s u l t in b a r r i e r s that t h r e a t e n l o s s e s in t e n b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s a n d the e r o s i o n of o n e of the f e w b r i g h t s p o t s in o u r b a l a n c e - o f - p a y m e n t s p i c t u r e. B u s i n e s s e s d e p e n d e n t o n e f f i c i e n t a n d u n i m p e n d e d d a t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s, s u c h a s b a n k i n g a n d f i n a n c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s, f i n d t h a t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l a w s a n d s i m i lar b a r r i e r s i m p o s e e v e r g r e a t e r c o s t s a n d e v e n t h r e a t e n to p r e c l u d e t h e o f f e r i n g of v a r i o u s p r o d u c t s a n d s e r v i c e s." T h e c o n f l i c t is t h e r e f o r e q u i t e o p e n. A n d t h i s v e r y c l e a r c r i t i c i s m of E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d the j u s t i f i c a t i o n for i n c l u d i n g in o u r s t u d y o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n in p r a c t i c e an a n a l y s i s of s u c h c a s e s t h a t m i g h t d i s c l o s e w h i c h i n t e r e s t s a c t u a l l y a r e s e r v e d b y t h e l e g i s l a t i o n a n d by the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s. O u r a i m is not to f o c u s o n t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s in g e n e r a l, b u t r a t h e r o n the u s e of f o r e i g n d a t a p r o c e s s i n g s e r v i c e s. T h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e a r e a w h e r e t h e c o n f l i c t is m o s t c l e a r l y fe l t - a n d w h e r e a c o m p e t i t i o n e x i s t s b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l a n d f o r e i g n s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s. T h i s l i m i t a t i o n m a y b e f o u n d t o o r e s t r i c t i v e to d i s c l o s e the p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t s r e l a t e d t o t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s. T h e a i m of t h i s e x p o s i t i o n d oes, h o w e v e r, i n c l u d e t w o r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s : (1) T h e u s e of a f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u as an a l t e r n a t i v e or s u p p l e m e n t t o a n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r. T h e r e is o n l y a c o n t r a c t u a l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n a l c l i e n t a n d the f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u. T h e r e a s o n for u s i n g t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u m a y b e t h e q u a l i t y o r r a n g e of s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d ( b e t t e r s e c u r i t y, a v a i l a b i l i t y, p r o g r a m s o r d a t a b a s e s ),

14 6 o r it m a y b e t h e d e s i r e t o e s c a p e f r o m n a t i o n a l a n d r e s t r i c t i v e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. (2) T h e f o r e i g n s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r is p a r t of the s a m e m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y, a n d for b u s i n e s s a n d p o l i c y r e a s o n s, p a r t of the p r o c e s s i n g is a s s u m e d to t a k e p l a c e a b r o a d. T h e s e c o n d o f t h e s e t w o t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e s t u d y w i l l e m b r a c e that s i t u a t i o n w h i c h has p e r h a p s b e e n m o s t f r e q u e n t l y d i s c u s s e d : the i m p a c t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o n m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s. In t h i s r e s p e c t, h o w e v e r, the s t u d y w i l l b e l i m i t e d to the i m p a c t o n t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g of the c o m p a n y in q u e s t i o n - n o t t h e m o r e g e n e r a l issue, f o r i n s t a n c e the i m p a c t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n on t h e d a t a i n c l u d e d in t r a n s p o r t d o c u m e n t s or s i m i l a r t r a n s a c t i o n s. D u r i n g the s t u d y, it b e c a m e e v i d e n t t h a t the t o t a l n u m b e r of c a s e s a n a l y s e d b y the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e not o v e r w h e l m i n g. In o r d e r to i l l u m i n a t e this v i t a l a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l issue, t h e p r o j e c t has t h e r e f o r e l o o k e d i n t o c a s e s o u t s i de t h e f o c u s of the m o r e t h o r o u g h s t u d y - a n d s u c h c a s e s w i l l be c i t e d w h e n c o n s i d e r e d r e l e v a n t.

15 7 2. A c t o r s a n d i n t e r e s t s W h e n d i s c u s s i n g the a c t o r s a n d i n t e r e s t s of t h i s a rea, t h e r e e x i s t s a n u m b e r of p o s s i b i l i t i e s. T h e p i c t u r e w i l l, of c o u r s e, h a v e t o b e p r e s e n t e d in a r a t h e r s c h e m a t i c way. (1) D a t a s u b j e c t s D a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h d a t a s u b j e c t s. T h e o r i g i n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i n t r o d u c i n g s o m e s o r t o f c o n t rol of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s w a s to e s t a b l i s h a g u a r a n t e e o f n a t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n n o t b e i n g v i o l a t e d b y f o r e i g n p r o c e s s i n g. T h e d a t a s u b j e c t s h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i m p l e i n t e r e s t : T h e y w a n t t h e s a m e p r o t e c t i o n r e g a r d l e s s of w h e r e t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s i n g of d a t a is t a k i n g p l a c e. T h e i r i n t e r e s t j u s t i f i e s c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y w i l l e s t a b l i s h s u c h a g u a r a n t e e. (2) F o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x F o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x o b v i o u s l y r e s e n t b e i n g d i s c r i m i n a t e d o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e f o r e i g n. T h e y m i g h t b e p i c t u r e d as b e i n g i n t e r e s t e d in a c q u i r i n g a d v a n t a g e s t h r o u g h t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y n o t u n d e r d i r e c t j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l law. If t h e r e a r e c o s t s i n v o l v e d in c o m p l y i n g w i t h n a t i o n a l law, i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x m a y n e g l e c t t h e s e a n d be a b l e to o f f e r s e r v i c e s at a l o w e r p r i c e.

16 8 T h i s t y p e of i n t e r e s t s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n. T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u d o e s not j u s t i f y a n y t h i n g e x c e e d i n g a p r i n c i p l e of " n a t i o n a l treatmi-nt": the m e r e fact t h a t t h e s e r v i c e v e n d o r is f o r e i g n, s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n as a p r o b l e m w i t h r e s p e c t to d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - the f o r e i g n v e n d o r s h o u l d b e a b l e t o c o m p e t e w i t h n a t i o n a l v e n d o r s o n t h e m e r i t s o f p r i c e, q u a l i t y a n d s c o p e of s e r v i c e s. (3) N a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x O b v i o u s l y, the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x w i l l not w e l c o m e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m a b r o a d. A n y m e a s u r e w h i c h w i l l r e s e r v e the l o c a l m a r k e t f o r t h e n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x, w i l l be in t h e i r i n t e r e s t - at l e a s t in t h e s h o r t t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e. T h i s p o s i t i o n is not as e v i d e n t as the i n t e r e s t o f f o r e i g n b u r e a u x in n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t. A n y n a t i o n a l b u r e a u is a p o t e n t i a l e x p o r t e r. If t h e n a t i o n a l b u r e a u is m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e x p o r t m a r k e t, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s on t h e h o m e m a r k e t g e t s i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h the g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y o f t h e b u r e a u. T h o u g h t h e b u r e a u m a y s e p a r a t e its i n t e r e s t s i n t o " p r o t e c t i o n " o n t h e h o m e m a r k e t a n d " n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t " o n f o r e i g n m a r k e t s, t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s w i l l not be e a s i l y u n i f i e d w i t h i n o n e c o r p o r a t e p o l i c y. T h e r e f o r e, it m a y be r e l e v a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n " e x p o r t e r s " a n d " i m p o r t e r s " w i t h r e s p e c t to n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x. A p p l y i n g t h i s t o t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n s in q u e s t i o n, one c e r t a i n l y w i l l f i n d m a n y i n d i v i d u a l v a r i e t i e s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, a n d for the sake- of a r g u m e n t, o n e m a y c o n s i d e r b u r e a u x in D e n m a r k, S w e d e n a n d N o r w a y as b e i n g w i t h i n " i m p o r t i n g " j u r i s d i c t i o n s, s e e i n g thiiir i n t e r e s t s b e t t e r s e r v e d by " p r o t e c t i o n i s t " a p p r o a c h e s. T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y is n o t s u c h a

17 9 E u r o p e a n n e i g h b o u r s - m o r e e a s i l y h a v e a n " e x p o r t i n g " p o s i tion, t h o u g h p r o b a b l y b e i n g " i m p o r t i n g in r e l a t i o n to t h e US. (4) C u s t o m e r s T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t of t h e c u s t o m e r w i l l s i m p l y be to take a d v a n t a g e of t h e " b e t t e r " s e r v i c e. W h i c h s e r v i c e is b e t t e r, w i l l g e n e r a l l y b e d e t e r m i n e d by c o s t - b e n e f i t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s, m o d i f i e d b y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n q u a l i t y. T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e c u s t o m e r m a y a l s o i n c l u d e a t t e m p t s to e v a d e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n. T h i s is an i n t e r e s t w h i c h p r o b a b l y is r e a l i s t i c, b u t w h i c h s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d j u s t i f i e d. T h e r e f o r e, t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r e s t of the c u s t o m e r is e x c l u d e d. T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e c u s t o m e r is t h e r e f o r e s i m i l a r t o t h a t of the f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x - that s u c h b u r e a u x a r e g i v e n n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t, a n d not d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t by n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. T h i s u n i o n of i n t e r e s t s b e c o m e s e v i d e n t in t h e c a s e w h e r e t h e f o r e i g n s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r is p a r t of the s a m e o r g a n i z a t i o n as t h e c u s t o m e r - a c a s e e x e m p l i f i e d b y the m u l t i n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o c e s s i n g at t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s w i t h i n o n e j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e d a t a o r i g i n a t i n g at a b r a n c h w i t h i n a n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n. T h e p r a c t i c a l b e n e f i t s of s u c h a p r a c t i c e m a y b e o b v i o u s, a n d s u c h c o r p o r a t i o n s w i l l h a r d l y be p l e a s e d t o f i n d t h a t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n h a s c r e a t e d b a r r i e r s to t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of w h a t is c o n c e i v e d as a r a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t e p o l i c y.

18 LO (5) G o v e r n m e n t s G o v e r n m e n t s h a v e the p o w e r to i n f l u e n c e a n d s u p p o r t o n e or m o r e of t h e o t h e r actors. T h e e x p l i c i t i n t e r e s t of g o v e r n m e n t s is t h e e n f o r c e m e n t of t h e i r d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. A s m e n t i o n e d, d a t a s u b j e c t s w o u l d l i k e t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n to be e q u a l r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l n a t u r e of d a t a p r o c e s s i n g. A n i n t e r e s t of n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d be to e n s u r e t h a t s u c h r e a s o n a b l e e q u a l i t y is m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h the e n f o r c e m e n t of the c l a u s e s in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n e n p o w e r i n g d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s t o c o n t r o l t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows. A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t of the s t a t e w o u l d be to d e f e n d n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e i n d u s t r y a g a i n s t f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t i o n. T h i s w o u l d i m p l y b a c k i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n i s t i n t e r e s t s o f n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x - a n d m a y h a v e e v e n f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s, in t h e n a t u re of a m o r e g e n e r a l t r a d e a n d e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c y, o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f l o n g t e r m i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t etc. T h i s m a y a l s o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as the p r o t e c t i o n i s t l c i n t e r e s t. G o v e r n m e n t s h a v e - at least p o t e n t i a l l y - an i n t e r e s t in b o t h t h e s e a s p e c t s. T h e p r o b l e m, as p r e s e n t e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n, m a y in t h e s i m p l e s t of terms b e c o n c e i v e d as w h e t h e r g o v e r n m e n t s a r e b a c k i n g o n l y the l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t s of d a t a s u b j e c t s, o r w h e t h e r t h e y are u s i n g t h e s e as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for p u r s u i n g p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c i n t e r e s t s. A s to o u r a n a l y s i s, a m a j o r p r o b l e m w o u l d b e to f i n d e m p i r i c a l d a t a w h i c h m a y d e t e r m i n e the c h o i c e m a d e b y the g o v e r n m e n t s in q u e s t i o n - as d i s c l o s e d by t h e i r p r a c t i c e - b e t w e e n t h e s r two m a j o r i n t e r e s t s. H o w e v e r, a o v e r n m e n t s h

19 11 t h e i n t e r e s t of n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y. A g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d not b e i n c l i n e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e d a t a o u t s i d e its t e r r i t o r y o n t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h w a s c o n s i d e r e d u n d u l y to i m p i n g e o n n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y. N a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o o v i o u s l y is an i n t e r e s t d i f f e r i n g f r o m t h e i n t e r e s t in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n, as t h e c o l l e c t i v e, r a t h e r t h a n the i n d i v i d u a l, is t h e s u b j e c t of t h e p r o t e c t i o n. But e q u a l l y o b v i o u s, n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y m a y s o m e t i m e s b e c o n s i d e r e d as an e x c u s e for i m p l e m e n t i n g p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s. (6) C o n c l u s i o n T h e c o n f l i c t of i n t e r e s t m a y b e r e g a r d e d o n o n e h a n d as the i n t e r e s t in n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t, a n d on t h e o t h e r h a n d as the i n t e r e s t in p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h i s is, h o w e v e r, c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x m a y b e d i s c r i m i n a t e d not t h r o u g h p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c r e a s o n s, b u t b e c a u s e they c a n n o t o f f e r s u f f i c i e n t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n ( w h i c h m a y b e the c a s e if t h e y w o r k w i t h i n a j u r i s d i c t i o n l a c k i n g n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a tion), o r that p r o c e s s i n g o u t s i d e t h e t e r r i t o r y is u n a c c e p t a b le d u e to n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y r e a s o n s. A t h i r d p o i n t is a d d e d w h e n t h e last t w o r e a s o n s a r e u s e d to s h r o u d t h e r e a l r e ason: n a m e l y that of p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r a c t i c e of n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a g e n c i e s a n d c a s e s s h o u l d at l e a s t m a k e p o s s i b l e a s o m e w h a t b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e c o m p l e x c o n f l i c t p o t e n t i a l i t i e s.

20 12 3. S w e d e n 3.1 U s e of f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x S w e d e n h a s t h e o l d e s t n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, a n d w a s a l s o t h e f i r s t c o u n t r y to r e a l l y b r i n g i n t o f o c u s t h e i s s u e of t r a n s n a t i o n a l flows o f p e r s o n a l d ata. Its p o l i c y h a s b e e n g i v e n a lot o f a t t e n t i o n, a n d s o m e of t h e c o n c e r n m e n t i o n e d i n i t i a l l y m a y h a v e been c a s u e d by e a r l y d e c i s i o n s of the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n Board. T h i s is i n d i c a t e d b y the B r i t i s h L i n d o p C o m m i t t e e, w h i c h a r g u e s ( R e p o r t : ) : "... d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s m i g h t i m p o s e r e s t r i c t i o n s on the e x p o r t to t h e UK of p e r s o n a l d a t a a b o u t t h e i r o w n c i t i z e n s if t h e p r o c e s s i n g of s u c h d a t a w e r e e x c l u d e d from the p r o t e c t i o n in the UK Act. I n d e e d, w e u n d e r s t a n d t h a t UK c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e c o m p a n i e s, c o m p e t i n g for S w e d i s h d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c o n t r a c t s, h a v e a l r e a d y s u f f e r e d f r o m r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d by the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n Board, b e c a u s e of t h e a b s e n c e of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n in the UK." R e s e a r c h i n g t h e p r a c t i c e of the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, the p r o j e c t h a s u n c o v e r e d o n l y two c a s e s u p o n w h i c h t h i s r a t h e r g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n m a y be b a s e d. B o t h c a s e s a r e w e l l k n o w n f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e, b u t are p e r h a p s o f t e n r e p o r t e d s o m e w h a t b r i e f l y. O u r a n a l y s i s is, of c o u r s e, b a s e d o n t h e o r i g i n a l S w e d i s h - l a n g u a g e d o c u m e n t s.

21 13 (1) The embossing case T h e f i r s t c a s e ( d e c i s i o n o f A u g u s t 12th, 1974, D n r ) c o n c e r n s a S w e d i s h l o c a l a u t h o r i t y, J o e n k j o e p i n g l a e n s l a n d s t i n g ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a c o u n t y o r a d i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t y ). J u l y 1974, t h i s a u t h o r i t y h a d i n t r o d u c e d a r e g i s t e r of p a t i e n t s. T h e a u t h o r i t y r e q u i r e d an a m e n d m e n t a n d e x t e n t i o n to t h i s r e g i s t e r in o r d e r t o e m b o s s p l a s t i c p a t i e n t c a r d s. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n d i d n o t h a v e a n y c o m m e n t s in r e s p e c t t o t h e p l a n n e d a m e n d m e n t o f t h e r e g i s t e r. A s t o t h e e m b o s s m e n t o f c a r d s, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n did, h o w e v er, p o i n t o u t t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o s e c t 11 of t h e act, a s p e c i a l l i c e n s e for e x p o r t of d a t a f o r p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d w a s r e q u i r e d. T h e e m b o s s m e n t p r e s u m e d s u c h a n e x p o r t. T h e d e c i s i o n of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d in q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h i s e x p o r t. T h e e x p o r t w o u l d i n c l u d e p e r s o n s in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e c o u n t y. T h e e m b o s s m e n t w o u l d i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a e l e m e n t s : - PIN - c o u n t y, m u n i c i p a l i t y, c o m m u n i t y - n a m e - a d d r e s s N o c o m p a n y in S w e d e n w a s a t t h a t t i m e a b l e t o e m b o s s p l a s t i c c a r d s, t h o u g h t h i s w o u l d b e c o m e p o s s i b l e d u r i n g t h e a u t u m n of T h e c o u n t y a u t h o r i t y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a n e w h o s p i t a l w o u l d be r e a d y in A u g u s t 1974, a n d t h a t the u s e of p a t i e n t s c a r d s w a s c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h t h i s n e w h o s p i t a l. A d e l a y u n t i l t h e c a r d s c o u l d be p r o d u c e d in S w e d e n, o r m a n u a l l y e m b o s s e d, w o u l d b e i n c o n v e n i e n t. T h e UK b u r e a u in q u e s t i o n ( R a p i d D a t a, H a v a n t ) a n d t h e i r S w e d i s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e (AB C a r l L a m m ) h a d e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r a w a r e

22 14 n e s s of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e d a t a for u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s o r use, a n d R a p i d D a t a h a d s p e c i f i e d t h e i r s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d b a s e s i t s d e c i s i o n on t h r e e p o i n t s. F i r s t l y, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d s t a t e s that in thxs c a s e it is a q u e s t i o n of m a s s data, a n d t h a t t h e a s s e s s m e n t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n m u s t t a k e t h i s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n. T h i s is the f i r s t d e c i s i o n on m a s s e x p o r t of p e r s o n a l d ata, a n d the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d is c o n s c i o u s of the i m p o r t a n c e of the d e c i s i o n as a p r e s e d e n c e. S e c o n d l y, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d p o i n t s to the risk of e s t a b l i s h i n g t o t a l r e g i s t e r s of t h e S w e d i s h p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n s e v e r a l f o r e i g n b u r e a u x h a v i n g h a d m a s s d a t a e x p o r t e d to them: " T h r o u g h a c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x, w h i c h in an a u t h o r i z e d o r u n a u t h o r i z e d w a y h a v e h a d a c c e s s to d a t a o n S w e d i s h c i t i z e n s f r o m r e g i s t e r s, s u c h p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r m a y o v e r t i m e b e c o m e b r o a d e r a n d d e e p e r." T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d p o i n t s out t h a t S w e d i s h a u t h o r i t i e s d o not h a v e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r s u c h f o r e i g n r e g i s t e r s, a n d that c o n t r o l b y f o r e i g n a u t h o r i t i e s "at t h i s t i m e " c a n n o t be c o u n t e d on. S e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s c a n n o t c o m p e n s a t e for this lack of c o n t r o l - t h o u g h the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d t a k e s c a r e to s t r e s s t h a t this d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t t h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n in th i s c a s e a r e i n a d e q u a t e. T h i r d l y, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d t a k e s n o t e o f the " u n r e s t in r e s p e c t to p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r s of w h i c h d a t a s u b j e c t s h a v e l i t t l e k n o w l e d g e w i t h r e s p e c t to o b j e c t i v e s a n d use, an u n r e s t

23 15 s e e n as p a r t o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n, a n d t h i s is r e l a t e d to the la c k of c o n t r o l p o i n t e d o u t in its s e c o n d p o i n t. O n t h i s r e a s o n i n g, l i c e n s e w a s r e f u s e d. T w o of t h e b o a r d m e m b e r s h a d a d i s s e n t i n q v iew, p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t the d a t a w e r e not s e n s i t i v e, a n d that a r g u m e n t s of c o s t s s h o u l d be g i v e n h i g h e r p r i o r i t y. If w e u s e o u r s c h e m a for an a n a l y s i s o f w h i c h i n t e r e s t s are i m p o r t a n t in t h i s d e c i s i o n, w e s e e t h a t t h e " p r o t e c t i o n i s t " i s s u e w a s n o t v e r y s t r o n g. A t the t i m e n o n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y w a s c o m p e t i n g for t h e c o n t r a c t, t h o u g h t h e r e w o u l d o f c o u r s e be m e d i u m t e r m b e n e f i t s for a c o m p a n y s e t u p so t o say b e h i n d the s c r e e n e r e c t e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d s t r e s s e d q u i t e s t r o n g l y t h e " e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n to d a t a s u b j e c t s " - a n d it s h o u l d be b o r n in m i n d t h a t at this t i m e the UK h a d n o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. N e i t h e r h a d it a d o p t e d t h e O E C D r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o r C o u n c i l o f E u r o p e t r eaty. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e " n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y " issue, as t h i s w a s a c a s e o f m a s s e x p o r t. In a s s e s s i n g the d e c i s i o n, it s h o u l d a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d t h a t at t h i s r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y s t a g e a r e s t r i c t i v e p o l i c y m i g h t h a v e l e s s p r e c e d e n t a l e f f e c t t h a n a p e r m i s s i v e. T h u s o u r a n a l y s i s w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s is not a g o o d e x a m p l e o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m, b u t r a t h e r an e x a m p l e of p u r s u i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. T h e e m p h a s i s o n lack o f c o n t r o l s m a y g i v e s o m e j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o the g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e L i n d o p C o m m i t t e e, c i t e d i n i t i a l l y.

24 16 (2) The publishing case T h e s e c o n d m a j o r c a s e f o l l o w e d a few w e e k s later, o n A u g u s t 27th, 1974 (D n r ). T h e a p p l i c a n t, B o n n i e r s F o e r e t a g s i n f o r m a t i o n AB, w a s a f f i l i a t e d to a m a j o r S w e d i s h p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e. T h i s c o m p a n y c o o p e r a t e d in p r o d u c i n g a c a t a l o g u e n a m e d S w e d i s h T a x C a l e n d a r (S v e r i g e s T a x e r i n g s k a l e n d e r ). T h i s c a t a l o g u e w o u l d i n c l u d e all p h y s i c a l a n d l e g a l p e r s o n s w i t h an i n c o m e e x c e e d i n g 6 U SEK, e s t i m a t e d to a p p r o x i m a t e l y e n t r i e s. T h e d a t a w a s f u r n i s h e d by c o u n t y a u t h o r i t i e s on m a g n e t i c tape. In o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e c i s i o n, o n e s h o u l d m a k e p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of i n c o m e is by i t s e l f not a v i o l a t i o n of p r i v a c y. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is m a d e p u b l i c b y s t a t u t e, a n d t h e r e is a t r a d i t i o n for s o m e p u b l i c a t i o n s c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n. T h e c a t a l o g u e in q u e s t i o n w a s t h e a n n u a l v o l u m e of a c a t a l g u e p u b l i s h e d for a n u m b e r o f p r e v i o u s y e a r s (the c a s e d o e s n o t g o i n t o d e t a i l s on t h i s p o i n t, as t h i s w a s n o t d i s p u t e d ). T h e d a t a to b e i n c l u d e d were: - c o d e for c o u n t y a n d m u n i c i p a l i t y - P I N - n a m e - a d d r e s s - t a x a b l e s t a t e i n c o m e - t a x a b l e m u n i c i p a l i n c o m e - d e b i t e d c a p i t a l tax T h e d a t a w a s e d i t e d in o r d e r to r e l a t e h u s b a n d a n d w i f e, and in o r d e r to m a k e an a l p h a b e t i c a l sort of m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d c o u n t i e s. C a p i t a l w a s c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g to s t a t u t o r y rules, a n d this p r o c e s s i n g t o o k p l a c e in S w e d e n.

25 17 A c o n t r a c t w a s e n t e r e d w i t h a UK firm, C o m t e c h, for p h o t o c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e d a t a. T h i s w a s d o n e in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h an e a r l i e r p r a c t i c e. A c o m p u t e r e x p e r t f r o m t h e g r a p h i c d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c o m p a n y a f f i l i t a t e d t o t h e p u b l i s h e r ( B o n n i e r s G r a f i s k a I n f o r m a t i o n s b e h a n d l i n g AB) b r o u g h t a m a g n e t i c t a p e to C o m tech, w h e r e t h e p h o t o c o m p o s i t i o n took p l a c e. T h e e x p e r t then b r o u g h t t h e t a p e a n d t h e p h o t o c o m p o s e d f i l m s b a c k to S weden, w h e r e t h e a c t u a l p r i n t i n g t o o k place. A l s o in t h i s c a s e, n o S w e d i s h c o m p a n y c o u l d m e e t t h e s p e e d r e q u i r e m e n t s. B o n n i e r s a l s o o f f e r e d to h a v e t h e p r o c e s s i n g done u n d e r s u r v e i l l a n c e b y t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e at C o m t e c h. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d d e c i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o d e c i s i o n in T h e E m b o s s i n g C a s e, u s i n g i d e n t i c a l p h r a s e s. O n e of t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e B o a r d (Ake P e r n e l i d ) h e l d a d i s s e n t i n g o p i n i o n. H e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the r i s k f o r u n a u t h o r i z e d u s e s h o u l d be r e l a t e d to the m o t i v a t i o n of p o s s i b l e f o r e i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n s. T h e r e s u l t i n g p u b l i c a t i o n c o u l d b e p u r c h a s e d a c r o s s t h e c o u n t e r in a n y b o o k s t o r e, a n d it w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be i m p r o b a b l e that a f o r e i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n w o u l d t a k e t h e t r o u b l e o f m a k i n g a n u n a u t h o r i z e d p e n e t r a t i o n. A n a n a l y s i s o f t h i s d e c i s i o n m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t that it is a l i n e a r d e s c e n d a n t o f t h e f o r m e r d e c i s i o n. A g a i n t h e p r o t e c - t i o n i s t i c e l e m e n t is h a r d l y d o m i n a n t, t h o u g h c l e a r l y s t r o n g e r t h a n in t h e f o r m e r c a s e. B u t as the d e c i s i o n c o n t a i n s the i d e n t i c a l p h r a s e s, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s t h e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t. In a s s e s s i n g t h e d e c i s i o n, it a l s o s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d that a t t h i s time, t h e o p t i c a l c h a r a c t e r r e a d i n g o f p u b l i c a t i o n s w a s less a d v a n c e d t h a n t o d a y. A t t h a t t i m e it w a s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n in p r i n c i p l e b e t w e e n the p r i n t e d c o p y of a r e g i s t e r ( w h i c h in t h i s c a s e w o u l d b e r e a d i l y a v a i

26 18 lable) a n d t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d v e r s i o n ( w h i c h w o u l d f o r s o m e t i m e r e s i d e a b r o a d ). T o d a y, t h i s w o u l d be less j u s t i f i e d - as the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a c c e s s i n g a c l e a r l y p r i n t e d c o p y a n d a c o m p u t e r i z e d c o p y w o u l d o n l y b e o n e of cost. S u c h c o s t d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e i m p o r t a n t in p r a c t i c e, but h a r d l y s u f f i c e n t for m a k i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n in p r i n c i p l e, as the d e c i s i o n w o u l d s e e m t o imply. It s h o u l d a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the r e f e r e n c e to " p u b l i c u n r e s t " m a y be m o r e d i f f i c u l t to d e f e n d in r e s p e c t t o a r e g i s t e r w i t h s u c h a c l e a r a n d l i m i t e d o b j e c t i v e as the p r o d u c t i o n o f an a n n u a l c a t a l o g u e. O b v i o u s l y, the e x i s t e n c e of a p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r of m e d i c a l p a t i e n t s w o u l d m o r e e a s i l y g i v e c a u s e f o r s u c h " u n r e s t ". In o u r o p i n i o n it w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be e a s y to a r g u e that t h i s d e c i s i o n s t r e t c h e s t h e o b j e c t i v e s of n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n f u r t h e r t h a n t h e f o r m e r d e c i s i o n. T h e i r o r d e r is, h o w e v e r, h a r d l y an a c c i d e n t. G i v e n the p r e c e d e n t a l v a l u e of t h e f o r m e r d e c i s i o n ( w h i c h in S c a n d i n a v i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law is r a t h e r s t r o n g b a s e d o n t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l i t y w i t h i n p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) t h e s e c o n d d e c i s i o n is q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e. B u t it is n e v e r t h e l e s s a d e v e l o p m e n t in a r e s t r i c t i v e d i r e c t i o n. (3) A s s e s s m e n t of t h e 1974 c a s e s T h e s e a r e o u r t w o e x a m p l e s of d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x. B o t h a r e e a r l y d e c i s i o n s, b u t it is o b v i o u s l y t o t h e s e T h e L i n d o p C o m m i t t e e r e f e r r e d w h e n s t a t i n g a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on UK t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. T h e c a s e s are, h o w e v e r, a t y p i c a l in o n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t - t h e y a r e b o t h e x a m p l e s o f m a s s e x p o r t of d a t a - d a t a o n in o n e c a s e a n d in t h e o t h e r c a s e a p p r o x i m a t e l y

27 19 s u b j e c t s. T h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a s p e c t w a s i m p o r t a n t in b o t h d e c i s i o n s. A n d in d e c i s i o n s o n w h o l l y n a t i o n a l r e g i s t e r s, the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d d i d s h o w the s a m e r e s t r i c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s r e g i s t e r s o f l a r g e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n. A n e g a t i v e d e c i s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o R e a d e r s D i g e s t (a r e g i s t e r f o r d i r e c t m a i l w i t h i n S w e d e n, p r o c e s s e d a l s o in S w eden) w a s a p p e a l e d to t h e C a b i n e t, a n d t h e r e o v e r r u l e d. A f t e r a c h a n g e o f g o v e r n m e n t, h o w e v e r, the D a t a P r o t e c t i o n A c t w a s a m e n d e d t o t a k e s p e c i a l a c c o u n t of j u s t t h e s e t y p e of r e g i s t e r s. T o d a y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d h a s a s p e c i a l a u t h o r i t y in h a n d l i n g t h i s t y p e of r e g i s t e r s - an a u t h o r i t y w h i c h m a y be s e e n t o e x c e e d t h a t of t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n in a n a r r o w sense. It is t h e r e f o r e o u r o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s e t w o c a s e s c a n n o t be a d e q u a t l y a s s e s s e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f d a t a p r o e c t i o n or t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a flows. T h e y h e r a l d t h e p r i o r i t y g i v e n in S w e d e n to the v u l n e r a b i l i t y issue, w h i c h is t h e c o n t e x t of the n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t. A s w e l l k n o w n, t h e S w e d i s h r e p o r t s o n the v u l n e r a b i l i t y of t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d s o c i e t y h a s g i v e n r i s e to f u r t h e r a n d m o r e g e n e r a l w o r k in S w e d e n, a n d t h e Data I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d as w e l l as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, h a s b e e n h e a v i l y i n v o l v e d in t h i s w o r k. V u l n e r a b i l i t y is o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d b o t h t o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a n d t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s as w e l l as p r o t e c t i v e t r a d e m e a s u r e s - b u t e q u a l l y o b v i o u s t o a m o r e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l issue. It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e i n c o r r e c t to s e e in t h e s e t w o e a r l y d e c i s i o n s t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of a f f a i r s w i t h r e s p e c t to e x p o r t of d a t a to f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r b u r e a u x - a n d a f t e r t h e s t a t u t o r y a m e n d m e n t, o n e m a y a l s o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e l e g a l c o n t e x t has b e e n c h a n g e d a d e q u a t e l y.

28 20 (4) T h e U n i v a c c a s e T h i s c a s e, d e c i d e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e o n O c t o b e r 13th, (D n r ) is i n d e e d r a t h e r a t y p i c a l. T h e S w e d i s h t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y w a s n e g o t i a t i n g for n e w c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t f r o m S a a b U n i v a c AB. T h e c o m p u t e r in q u e s t i o n h a d at t h i s t i m e not yet b e e n i n s t a l l e d in S w e d e n, a n d t h e t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y h a d d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e c o m p a n y b e f o r e J a n u a r y 1st, 1978, d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h r e s p e c t to a c c e s s a b i 1 ity a n d c a p a c i t y c o u l d b e m e t. T h i s i m p l i e d a test, w h i c h w a s p l a n n e d t o t a k e p l a c e in the US. A n d in o r d e r to m a k e this test as r e a l i s t i c as p o s s i b l e, a r e a l s a m p l e r e g i s t e r s h o u l d b e used. T h r e e r e g i s t e r s w e r e s u g g e s t e d : - a c l i e n t r e g i s t e r o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y s u b s c r i b e r s in V a e s t e r a s t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e a - an o r d e r r e g i s t e r o f o r d e r s f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y s u b s c r i b e r s in t h e F a g e r s t a a r e a c o d e d i s t r i c t - a w a k e - u p c a l l r e g i s t e r of s u b s c r i b e r s in S t o c k h olm, V a e s t e r a s a n d s o u t h e r n t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e a s. S p e c i a l s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d : T h e d a t a w o u l d be t r a n s p o r t e d b y c o u r i e r, s t o r e d in s p e c i a l l o c k e d c o m p a r t m e n t s b e t w e e n tests, d e l e t e d f r o m d i s k s a n d m a g n e t i c t a p e s b e f o r e r e t u r n to the U S U n i v a c c o m p a n y ; no o t h e r a c t i v i t y t h a n the t e s t s w o u l d t a k e p l a c e in the m a c h i n e hall, n o f u n c t i o n s for l i s t i n g t h e r e g i s t e r s w o u l d be i n c l u d e d in t h e t e s t s ( t h o u g h b r i e f s e c t i o n s m i g h t be p r i n t e d - t h e s e w a s g u a r a n t e e d to be i m m e d i a t e l y d e s t r o y e d ), a n d o n e of the s o f t w a r e e x p o r t s of the t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y w a s to f o l l o w t h e t e s t in USA. T h e t e s t p e r i o d w a s e s t i m a t e d to 4-7 w e e k s. T h e t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y s t r e s s e d t h e c o s t s of k e e p i n g a p e r s o n in the USA

29 21 t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r t h i s w a s felt n e c e s s a r y. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n g r a n t e d l i c e n s e in t h i s c a s e, a f t e r d i s c u s s i n g the s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s w i t h t h e t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y. T h e a u t h o r i t y w a s r e q u i r e d t o e n t e r a w r i t t e n c o n t ra c t w i t h U n i v a c o n t h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s, a n d t h e p r e c a u t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e w a s s t r e s s e d in the d e c i s i o n. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e m e a s u r e s s h o u l d be s a m p l e d d u r i n g t h e t e s t p e r i o d, a n d that the r e g i s t e r s s h o u l d b e d e l e t e d in t h e U S (not t r a n s p o r t e d b a c k to S w e d e n ). T h e U n i v a c c a s e a l s o c o n c e r n e d - like t h e c a s e s - m a s s e x p o r t of d a t a. N e v e r t h e l e s s, t h e d e c i s i o n w a s d i f f e r e n t - a n d t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n m a d e n o m e n t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y r i s k s or t h e p r o t e c t i o n p r o b l e m. In 1977 t h e U S d i d h a v e a d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t the f e d e r a l a c t d i d n o t a p p l y t o the c a s e at h a n d - and t h e d e c i s i o n m a k e s no m e n t i o n of s t a t e law w h i c h m i g h t b e a p p l i c a b l e. T h e d e c i s i o n w o u l d s e e m to p i v o t o n t h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s, w h i c h w a s f o u n d a d e q u a t e to g u a r a n t e e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d to a v o i d t h e i s s u e o f n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y. If t h e d e c i s i o n g i v e s p r i o r i t y to a n y i n t e r e s t s, it w o u l d b e t h a t o f t h e u s e r - in t h i s c a s e the t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y - in w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t m a d e p o s s i b l e a d e s i r e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e q u i p m e n t o f f e r e d. W e h a v e c a t e g o r i z e d t h i s c a s e w i t h the u s e of f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r b u r e a u x. T h i s is, h o w e v e r, o n l y t r u e in a v e r y f o r m a l s e n s e - as t h e p r o c e s s i n g w a s o n l y a m e a n s to t e s t i n g a c o m p u t e r s y s tem, not an e n d in i t s e l f. N e v e r t h e l e s s, w e f e e l that this d e c i s i o n b a l a n c e s t h e r a t h e r r e s t r i c t i v e t r e n d i n d i c a t e d by t h e c a s e s. If o n e a c c e p t s t h a t the s e v e r e s e c u r i t y m e a s u res t a k e n by the t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y w a s t h e m a i n r e a son for g r a n t i n g l i c e n s e, t h i s w o u l d s t r e n g t h e n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t the i n t e r e s t g i v e n p r i o r i t y a r e t h o s e of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y - n o t t h a t o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m. But, as

30 22 s t r e s s e d, t h i s c a s e is t o o a t y p i c a l for e s t a b l i s ) ing a b a s i s f o r a n y s t r o n g a r g u m e n t s. (5) T h e M a l m o e f i r e b r i g a d e c a s e T h i s is o n e of t h e m o r e f a m o u s e x a m p l e s of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g in S c a n d i n a v i a, a n d p e r h a p s o n e of t h e m o r e c u r i o u s e x a m p l e s in t h e f i l e s o f the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n. T h e c a s e w a s d e c i d e d b y tho D a t a I n s p e c t i o n 2 2 n d of N o v e m b e r, (Dnr ). T h e f i r e b r i g a d e of M a l m o e w a n t e d a f.ystem w i t h d a t a o n f i r e s i t e s e q u i p p e d w i t h a u t o m a t i c fire a l a r m s (at t h a t time, a p p r o x i m a t e l y ), i n f o r m a t i o n on building:-, w a t e r a c c e s s p o i n t s, s w i t c h o f f p o i n t s for e l e c t r i c i t y, g a s a n d w a t e r, s p e c i a l r i s k s etc. P e r s o n a l d a t a i n c l u d e d n a m e a n d t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r for the c o n t a c t p e r s o n s of the d i f f e r e n t c o m p a n i e s. T h e s e d a t a w a s e x t r a c t e d f r o m the m a n u a l f i l e s o f t h e f i r e b r i g a d e. F o r p r o c e s s i n g, t h e M a l m o e fire b r i g a d e c o n t r a c t e d G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c D a t a C e n t e r, C l e v e l a n d, O h i o. T h e s y s t e m w a s m a i n t a i n e d b y t e r m i n a l s f r o m M a l m o e. W h e n a u t o m a t i c f i r e a l a r m is s o u n d e d, a p r o c e s s i n g is i n i t i a t e d at the US s e r v i c e bure.i' x r e s u l t i n g in a p r i n t - o u t at the t e r m i n a l of t h e f i r e b r i g a d e in M a l m o e for u s e b y the p e r s o - nell i n v o l v e d in t h e a c t i o n taken. In its a r g u m e n t s, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t e d o u t that I he e x i s t e n c e of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s in».he r e g i s t e r w a s o n l y c a u s e d by his o r h e r f u n c t i o n w i t h i n the c o m p a n y. T h e d a t a (which w e r e r e s t r i c t e d to n a m e a n d t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r ) w e r e a l s o fount] to be r a t h e r t r i v i a l. T h e d a t a w m i ' M a l e n ho H o i o t o J

31 23 T h e r f o r e the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n l i c e n s e d t h e a r r a n g e m e n t, s e a t i n g a few c o n d i t i o n s ( i m p l i e d by the d e s c r i p t i o n a b o v e ), i n c l u d i n g t h a t d a t a s e c u r i t y s h o u l d b e s u f f i c e n t t o e x c l u d e u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s. A n a l y s i n g t h i s c a s e, o n e m a y c o n s i d e r wl^ t h e r the i n t e r e s t in e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n o f d a t a s u b j e c t s h a s b e e n v i o l a t e d. It w o u l d be v e r y d. f t i c u l t to m a i n t a i n t h i s if, as t h e D.ita I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t s out, t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a i n v o l v e d a r e v e r y t r i v i a l. O f m o r e i n t e r e s t is he p o i n t that t h i s is a c a s e of n o n - p r o - t e c t i o n i s t i c a ' t i t u d e. O n e m a y p r e s u m e t h a t t h e r e w o r e n a t i o nal s e r v i c e b u r e a u x w h i c h w o u l d b e a b l e to o f f f r a s i m i l a r i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v i c e to t h e f i r e b r i g a d e - t h o u g h o b v i o u s l y the f i r e b r i g a d e t h o u g h t the U S b u r e a u ' s o f f e r w a s the b e t t e r. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n d i d in t h i s c a s e f o l l o w t h e p r ' n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t r a t h e r t h a n the p r i n c i p l e of p r o t e c t i o n i s m. W e t h i n k t h a t t h i s is p e r h a p s a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n of the c u r rent p o l i c y t o w a r d s f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x t h a n the two c a s e s. (6) B a c k u p s e r v i c e s a b r o a d A c o m m o n c a s e w o u l d b e o n e w h e r e a S w e d i s h c o m p a n y for s e c u r i ty r e a s o n s c o n t r a c t s w i t h a c o m p a n y in a n o t h e r coun'.ry h a v i n g a c o m p a t i b l e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m for b a c k u p s e r v i c e s. S u c h a c a s e h a s b e e n d e c i d e d b y tin D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, w h e r e a b a n k in the s o u t h of S w e d e n w a s g r a n t e d l i c e n s e t o b a c k u p p r o c e s s i n g of its p e r s o n e l l r e g i s t e r in D e n m a r k. T h e l i c e n s e a l s o p e r m i t t e d p e r i o d i c a l t e s t i n g of thi= b a c k u p link (cfr S O U : 5 4 p 278). In its c o m m e n t s to h i s c a s e, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e men' i"n t hat s u c h a r r a n g e m e n t s p r o b a b l y a r e q u i t e c o m m o n (Sf;U : 5 4 p 278):

32 24 "As s u c h p l a n s a r e b a s e d o n t e c h n i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a s s e s s m e n t s, it w i l l in c e r t a i n c a s e s for t h e c o m p a n i e s tn q u e s t i o n i m p l y d i f f i c u l t i e s if c o n d i t i o n s a r e not c r e a t e d w h i c h w i l l p e r m i t s u c h r o u t i n e s. " In t h e s e r a t h e r c a r e f u l l y p h r a s e d s t a t e m e n t m a y b e s e e n the i n d i c a t i o n of a p o l i c y w h i c h w i l l a l l o w n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t of f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x at l e a s t in as far as b a c k u p r o u t i n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d.

33 U s e of p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y w i t h i n a c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n - the S W I F T c a s e In t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n, a d i s t i n c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n t h e u s e of a n i n d e p e n d e n t s e r v i c e b u r e a u a b r o a d, a n d t h e u s e o f a s e r v i c e b u r e a u a f f i l i t a t e d w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y. T h e r e is a c t u a l ly an i n t e r m e d i a r y s i t u a t i o n, w h e r e a n u m b e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t c o m p a n i e s in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s o r g a n i z e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a s y s t e m for c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s i n g o f d a t a. T h e S W I F T s y s t e m r e p r e s e n t s s u c h a s o l u t i o n. S W I F T - t h e S o c i e t y f o r W o r l d w i d e I n t e r b a n k F i n a n c i a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s - w a s c r e a t e d in as a c o o p e r a t i v e, n o n - p r o f i t s o c i e t y. In 1980 it h a d as m e m b e r s 750 b a n k s in 27 c o u n t r i e s in E u r o p e, t h e A m e r i c a s a n d t h e F a r E a s t ( V e k e m a n : 7 ). At t h a t t ime, t h e n e t w o r k h a n d l e d t r a n s m i s s i o n s d a i l y. T h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f S W I F T is t o p r o v i d e ( N a c a m u l i : 7 ). "... a s t a n d a r d i z e d, a v a i l a b l e, a u d i t a b l e, s e c u r e a n d p r i v a t e s y s t e m f o r i t s m e m b e r b a n k s to e f f e c t i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s. " T h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a r e q u i t e s e v e r e, a n d i n c l u d e a n a u t h e n t i c a t o r i m b e d d e d in e a c h m o n e y t r a n s f e r to g u a r a n t e e t h a t no c h a n g e t a k e p l a c e d u i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n. T h i s is b a s e d o n an a l g o r i t h m p r o v i d e d b y S W I F T, a n d b i l a t e r a l k e y s u s e d b y s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g b a n k s. T h e a l g o r i t h m is c o m m o n to all b a n k s, b u t t h e k e y s a r e k n o w n o n l y t o the s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g p a i r. T h e a u t h e n t i f i c a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t a u t o m a t i c a l l y in t h e t e r m i n a l s. In a d d i t i o n, a l l m e s s a g e s o v e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i n e s a r e e n c r y p t e d ( N a c a m u l i : 9 ).

34 26 O b v i o u s l y, t h e s e c u r i t y f e a t u r e s a r e d e s i g n e d m a i n l y t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d s for s e c u r i t y in e l e c t r o n i c f u n d s t r a n s f e r s. B u t it m a y b e t a k e n as a p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e t h a t t h i s l e v e l of s e c u r i t y a l s o w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n. O n t h e o t h e r h and, d a t a p r o t e c t i o n is d i f f e r e n t f r o m d a t a s e c u r i t y. T h e a r g u m e n t of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n w i l l be v a l i d e v e n if t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n to t h e f o r e i g n b a n k is s e c u r e. T h e f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n f o r l i c e n s e u s i n g S W I F T w a s d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s e p c t i o n B o a r d on A p r i l 13th, 1976 (Dnr ). A m a j o r c o m m e r c i a l b a n k, S v e n s k a H a n d e l s b a n k e n (SHB) a p p l i e d for l i c e n s e to e x p o r t p e r s o n a l d a t a - in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p a y m e n t t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n S H B a n d a f o r e i g n b a n k o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n, w h e n t h e t r a n s a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e for t h e a c c o u n t of the d a t a s u b j e c t a n d t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a a r e e l e m e n t s of the t r a n s a c t i o n, a n d - in i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c r e d i t r e p o r t s to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d h a d in an e a r l i e r d e c i s i o n o f N o v e m b e r 2 5th, (Dnr ) g r a n t e d l i c e n s e t o m a i n t a i n t h e se f i l e s a n d to e x p o r t d a t a to t h e e x t e n t m e n t i o n e d in t h e n e w t r a n s a c t i o n. T h i s d e c i s i o n, h o w e v e r, e x l u d e d e x p l i c i t l y t h e e x p o r t to a c e n t r a l i z e d f o r e i g n s y s t e m w h i c h, f o r i n s t a n c e, c l e a r e d t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n b a n k s. T h e S w e d i s h B a n k I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d did, on the r e q u e s t of the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d, g i v e an o p i n i o n o n the a p p l i c a t i o n, w h i c h w a s p o s i t i v e. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d d i d a l s o v i s i t t h e o f f i c e s of S W I F T in B e l g i u m a n d H o l land, s e c u r i n g s u p p l e m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the c o m p u t e r s y s t e m

35 27 I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e S W I F T n e t w o r k w o u l d t a k e p l a c e t h r o u g h a d e d i c a t e d m i n i c o m p u t e r ( S I D - S W I F T I n t e r f a c e D e v i c e ), w h i c h i t s e l f w o u l d be s u b j e c t to s e v e r e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s at S H B 1s d a t a p r o c e s s i n g d e p a r t m e n t in S t o c k h o l m. T o t h i s d e p a r t m e n t w o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d t e r m i n a l s in S t o c k h o l m, G o t h e n b u r g a n d M a l m o e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d s m a k e m e n t i o n of its r e s o l u t i o n of M a y 2 9th, 1974 e s t a b l i s h i n g a m o d e l for a p p l i c a t i o n f o r b a n k s, w h i c h i n c l u d e d a g e n e r a l e x e m p t i o n u n d e r s e c t 11 o f t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n t o c o m m u n i c a t e p e r s o n a l d a t a a b r o a d as p a r t of a p a y m e n t t r a n s a c t i o n. T h i s d i d not, h o w e v e r, i n c l u d e t h e u s e o f the S W I F T s y s t e m. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d c o m m e n ted, h o w e v e r : "The n a t u r e of t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s t o be m e d i a t e d a n d the d a t a p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s to b e p e r f o r m e d, t h e l i m i t e d s t o r a g e t i m e for a l l e t r a n s a c t i o n s, a n d t h e v e r y r i g o r o u s s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s t a k e n o r p l a n n e d t o g e t h e r l e a d to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e S W I F T s y s t e m w i l l not i n v o l v e a r i s k of i n v a s i o n of p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y. " T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d p o i n t s o u t that t h e S w e d i s h b a n k s w i l l h a v e full c o n t r o l o f d a t a d u r i n g the p e r i o d t h e y r e s i d e in t h e S W I F T s y s t e m, a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d m a y e x c e r c i s e t h e n e c e s s a r y s u p e r v i s i o n. L a t e r o t h e r b a n k s h a v e b e e n g i v e n l i c e n s e t o c o n n e c t to the S W I F T n e t w o r k, for i n s t a n c e S p a r b a n k e r n a s B a n k, d e c i s i o n of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n o f N o v e m b e r 8th, 1976 (Dnr ). In t h i s d e c i s i o n, o n l y a r e f e r e n c e t o the f i r s t a n d d e c i s i v e p r e c e d e n t is g i v e n as r e a s o n s for the d e c i s i o n. In a n a l y s i n g t h i s c ase, o n e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i v e i n t e r e s t is not in t h e f o c u s - b a r r i n g S w e d i s h b a n k s f r o m S W I F T w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e a n y b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o n t h e b u s i n e s s of

36 28 S w e d i s h b a n k s. T h e i n t e r e s t o f n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t m a y a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d a r a t h e r a r t i f i c i a l p o i n t o f v i e w w i t h r e s p e c t to an o r g a n i z a t i o n l i k e S W I F T, w h i c h has a f a c t u a l m o n o p o l y of a c e r t a i n s e r v i c e. O n e s h o u l d, h o w e v e r, a l s o c o n s i d e r the m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e a s c r i b e d t o s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a n d i n t e g r i t y of the S W I F T s y s t e m, as w e l l as t h e fact t h a t t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n h a v e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e b a n k s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t r a n s a c t i o n, a n d t h e r e b y a l s o h a s s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e t r a n s a c t i o n itself.

37 U s e of a f f i l i t a t e d s e r v i c e b u r e a u a b r o a d T h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y i d e n t i f i e d w a s t h e c a s e in w h i c h a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w a n t e d t o u s e t h e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s of a b u r e a u a f f i l i t a t e d a b r o a d. T h e t y p i c a l e x a m p l e s w o u l d be r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e b r a n c h a n d h o m e o f f i c e s - b u t o b v i o u s l y the o p p o s i t e c o u l d a l s o be true, t h o u g h t h i s w o u l d be less t y p i c a l f o r a S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r y, w i t h o n l y a s m a l l n u m b e r of t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s. (1) T h e S i e m e n s c a s e T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e s e c a s e s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y t h e S i e m e n s case, d e c i d e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n on M a r c h 13th, 1975 (Dnr ). T h e S i e m e n s m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y i n c l u d e s s o m e 70 c o m p a n i e s in 40 c o u n t r i e s. T h e c e n t r a l p e r s o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in M u n i c h h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a p e r s o n a l r e g i s t e r in t h e f o r m of a d a t a b a n k w i t h t h e a c r o n y m P I S A. T h i s w o u l d p r o v i d e b a s i s for p e r s o n e l l s t a t i s t i c s a n d d e c i s i o n s in q u e s t i o n s o f p e r s o n e l l. T h e s t a t i s t i c s w o u l d a l s o be of a c o m p a r a t i v e n a t u r e, i n c l u d i n g - n u m b e r of p e r s o n s in d i f f e r e n t j o b l e v e l s - s a l a r y s t r u c t u r e - a g e s t r u c t u r e - e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e - p e r s o n e l l t h r o u g h p u t - n a t i o n a l i t y m i x of p e r s o n e l l - p e n s i o n s c h e m e s a n d o t h e r s o c i a l b e n e f i t s for e m p l y e e s

38 30 In r e s p e c t t o d e c i s i o n s on e m p l o y e e s, t h e s e w e r e b a s e d on a t e r m i n a l s y s t e m s t h r o u g h w h i c h q u e r i e s c o u l d be p u t to the d a t a b a s e. T h e s e i n c l u d e d - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of e m p l o y e e s a d e q u a t e for c e r t a i n j o b s or p o s i t i o n s - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e m p l o y e r s s u i t a b l e f o r f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n - i d e n f i c a t i o n of e m p l o y e r s for h o n o r a r i u m s etc. P e r s o n a l d a t a o n f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d, n a t i o n a l i t y a n d e d u c a t i o n w a s e s s e n t i a l for P I S A. T h e d a t a w o u l d be p r e p r o c e s s e d in S t o c k h o l m a n d s t o r e d on a m a g n e t i c t ape. C o p i e s of t h e s t o r e d d a t a w o u l d b e p r i n t e d on f o r m s w h i c h w o u l d b e a c c e s s i b l e to the e m p l o y e e s. T h e m a g n e t i c t a p e w o u l d b e m a i l e d to M u n i c h. T h e d a t a w o u l d not b e c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h i r d p a r t i e s. P r e p a r i n g the d e c i s i o n, the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n r e q u e s t e d c o m m e n t s f r o m s e v e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s of e m p l o y e e s. T h e n a t i o n a l u n i o n (L a n d s o r g a n i t a t i o n e n i S v e r i g e ) r e s p o n d e d n e g a t i v e l y, w i t h o u t a n y d e l i b e r a t i o n a p a r t from a r e f e r e n c e to m e m b e r u n i o n s w n i c h a l s o h e l d a n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e. A n o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n (S A C O / S R ) h a d a r a t h e r n o n c o m m i t t e n t a t t i t u d e, c o m m e n t i n g t h a t " a b s o l u t e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n " w a s i m p o s s i b l e, a n d t h a t t h e d e s i r e o n Siem e n ' s b e h a l f of u s i n g P I S A f o r e m p l o y e e p l a n n i n g w a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e. T h e c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of o f f i c e a n d c o m m e r c e (TCO) g a v e a r a t h e r l e n g t h y c o m m e n t. T C O m a i n t a i n e d that the l a c k o f c o n t r o l of s y s t e m s a b r o a d j u s t i f i e d a r e s t r i c t i v e a t t i t u d e f r o m t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n. In c e r t a i n c a s e s, the s i t u a t i o n w o u l d j u s t i f y a d i f f e r e n t d e c i s i o n w h e r e e m p l o y e r a n d e m p l o y e e w e r e e q u a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in an e x p o r t. "A c o n d i t i o n w o u l d in t h e s e c a s e s be, h o w e v e r, that the l o c a l u n i o n s h a d c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to the

39 31 c o n t e n t of t h e r e g i s t e r as a w h o l e a n d on t h e s u b s e t e x p o r t e d a b r o a d. " In t h i s case, T C O r e c o m m e n d e d a r e s t r i c t i v e a t t i t u d e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n l i c e n s e d t h e l o c a l S w e d i s h s y s t e m f o r the d a t a n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e P I S A s y s t e m in M u n i c h. B u t t h e q u e s t i o n of e x p o r t w a s f o u n d m o r e d i f f i c u l t, a n d is t h e s u b j e c t of d i s c u s s i o n in t h e d e c i s i o n. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e s e d a t a a r e s e n s i t i v e. A n d if this e x p o r t is l i c e n s e d, t h e d e c i s i o n w o u l d b e c o m e a p r e c e d e n t a l s o f o r o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s. T h e s e t w o e l e m e n t s w e r e p o i n t e d o u t as i m p o r t a n t in t h e a s s e s s m e n t of t h e r i s k of i n f r i n g e m e n t, as w e l l as the l a c k of n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n in G e r m a n y (at t h e t i m e of t h e d e c i s i o n ) a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s. A g a i n the a r g u m e n t o f p o s s i b l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r s a b r o a d is m e n t i o n e d. C o n c l u d i n g, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n s t r e s s e s t h e i n t e r e s t s of the e m p l o y e e s, s t a t i n g t h a t o n t h i s b a s i s, o n l y a s u b s e t m i g h t be c o m m u n i c a t e d a b r o a d - w h i c h, h o w e v e r, w a s n o t a c c e p t a b l e to S i e m e n s d u e to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e P I S A s y s t e m. O n t h i s b a s i s, t h e l i c e n s e w a s d e c l i n e d. A n a l y s i n g t h i s c a s e, it w o u l d s e e m v e r y d i f f i c u l t to r e l a t e t h e d e c i s i o n t o p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a s u r e s o r to a q u e s t i o n of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t. T h e i s s u e of n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y is m e n t i o ned, b u t is g i v e n a p l a c e in t h e a r g u m e n t s i n d i c a t i n g a n o n - d e c i s i v e c h a r a c t e r. It w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t is t h e q u e s t i o n of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. E x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n e d is t h e l a c k of n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, t h o u g h t h e m a j o r p o i n t

40 32 s e e m s to b e the c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g e m p l o y e e s. T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t o t a l j o b e n v i r o n m e n t in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h m a n a g e m e n t is c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t in the S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s - a n d S w e d e n h a s l e g i s l a t i o n on p r o c e d u r e s for c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s. T h e u n i o n s h a v e a v e r y s t r o n g p o s i t i o n in the g e n e r a l e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c y in s o c i e t y. It m a y b e felt t h a t t h e e x t e n t i o n of the i n t e r e s t in e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n to t h e c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s, is e x t e n d i n g t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n i s s u e s t o o far. B u t o u r b a s i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n i n c l u d e s the i n t e r e s t in a d e q u a c y - t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e d a t a - s u b j e c t to c o - d e t e r m i n e w h i c h d a t a a r e r e l e v a n t to w h a t d e c i s i o n s. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c t l y to t h e e x p l i c i t i n t e r e s t of the TCO, a n d w h i c h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d it w o u l d l o s e t h r o u g h an e x p o r t o f data. O n e s h o u l d not d i s r e g a r d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n m i g h t w a n t less b e n e f i c i a r y u s e of t h e s y s t e m t h a n i n d i c a t e d b y t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b y S i e m e n s. T h i s h a p p e n e d a t a t i m e w h e n t h e G e r m a n p o l i c y of " B e r u f s v e r b o t " w a s m e t w i t h a q u i t e c o n t r o v e r s i a l a t t i t u d e in t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s. T h i s is, h o w e v e r, o u r o w n e l a b o r a t i o n s o nly, w i t h no j u s t i f i c a t i o n in t h e e x p r e s s e d a r g u m e n t s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, it w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e S i e m e n s c a s e is a n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e of h o w t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n h a s g i v e n p r i o r i t y t o t h e i n t e r e s t of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. (2) T h e T h o r n c a s e T h e T h o r n case, in c o n t r a s t t o the S i e m e n s c a s e, r e p r e s e n t s a t r i v i a l s i t u a t i o n, p e r h a p s i l l u s t r a t i n g b e t t e r t h e t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n n f II C i n n * * i 1 * - J

41 33 d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n J a n u a r y 1 4th, (Dnr ). T h o r n H y r - T V A B is a S w e d i s h c o m p a n y a f f i l i t a t e d w i t h T h o r n T e l e v i s i o n R e n t a l s Ltd, S w i n d o n, E n g l a n d. J a n u a r y 10th, 1975 (a p r i o r d e c i s i o n a few d a y s e a r l i e r ), T h o r n S w e d e n w a s g r a n t e d l i c e n s e to o p e r a t e a r e g i s t e r of a p p r o x i m a t e l y c u s t o m e r s. T h e r e g i s t e r c o n t a i n e d - n a m e o f c u s t o m e r - a d d r e s s o f c u s t o m e r - m o d e l o f t e l e v i s o n set - m o n t h l y r e n t a l - c o n t r a c t n u m b e r - p a y m e n t d a t e - i n t a l l a t i o n d a t e - f o r m of p a y m e n t (bank, p o s t etc) - r e n t a l d e b e t s - r e n t a l c r e d i t s - r e n t a l t o t a l P I N s w e r e e x l u d e d f r o m the r e g i s t e r. T h e S w e d i s h c o m p a n y w a s t o o s m a l l t o e m p l o y e f f e c t i v l y t h e i r o w n c o m p u t e r s y s t e m. C o s t s f o r u s i n g t h e s e r v i c e s of a S w e d i s h b u r e a u w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p a r e d w i t h u s i n g t h e e x i s t i n g s e r v i c e s in S w i n d o n. A c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h s i s t e r c o m p a n i e s in D e n m a r k, G e r m a n y a n d H o l l a n d f o r u s e of t h e S w i n d o n b u r e a u w a s p l a n n e d. T h e d a t a w e r e r e g i s t e r e d o n t o m a g n e t i c t a p e a n d c o m m u n i c a t e d t o S w i n d o n b y a t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n link. A l l d a t a w e r e in S w e d i s h, a n d t h e S w e d i s h c o m p a n y h e l d i t s e l f f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r i n t o u t s in t h e f o r m of p a y m e n t n o t i c e s, a c c o u n t e x t r a c t s etc. N o d a t a w e r e r e t a i n e d a f t e r p r o c e s s i n g b y t h e m o t h e r c o m p a n y. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n n o t e d t h a t t h e c a s e r e l a t e d t o a r a t h e r m o d e s t n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s, w h o w e r e a l l c u s t o m e r s of t h e c o m

42 34 p a n y. T h e p r o c e s s i n g r e l a t e d o n l y to t h e r e n t a l o f t e l e v i s i o n sets, a n d t h e d a t a w e r e n o t v e r y s e n s i t i v e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e s t r e s s e d that t h e l a c k o f P I N r e d u c e d the r i s k o f m a t c h i n g w i t h o t h e r s y s t e m s. O n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s y s t e m w o u l d be o u t s i d e S w e d i s h j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e - t h o u g h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e x e r c i s i n g a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of c o n t r o l i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h the S w e d i s h c o m p a n y is p o i n t e d out. O n t h i s b a s i s. T h o r n w a s g r a n t e d a license. In t h i s c a s e, t h e i n t e r e s t in n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t is c l e a r l y g i v e n p r i o r i t y o v e r t h e i n t e r e s t in p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h r o u g h a d e n i a l o f l i c e n s e o n e m i g h t h a v e f o r c e d T h o r n to u s e a m o r e e x p e n s i v e, b u t n a t i o n a l b u r e a u. (3) T h e A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C a s e T h e A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C o m p a n y o p e r a t e s, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s, the A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C a r d s e r v i c e, a n d is o n e of t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s w h i c h has v o i c e d c o n c e r n o v e r the r e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w ^. T h i s c a s e c o n c e r n e d the e x p o r t of d a t a o n c a r d m e m b e r s f r o m t h e S w e d i s h a f f i l i t a t e, A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C o m p a n y A k t i e b o l a g. It w a s d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n o n A u g u s t 2nd, (Dnr ). T h e r e g i s t e r in q u e s t i o n c o n t a i n e d d a t a on h o l d e r s of A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C a r d s in S w e d e n a n d o t h e r S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s (the c a r d s y s t e m w a s at t h a t t i m e o p e r a t e d f r o m S w e d e n ). T h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a w a s c o n t a i n e d in t h e register: P I N n a m e ad d rp R «i

43 35 - a c c o u n t n u m b e r - d e b i t e d s u m - p a y e d s u m T h e r e g i s t e r w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s u b - r e g i s t e r s, o n e f o r d o l l ar c a r d s a n d o n e f o r S w e d i s h c r o w n c a r d s. A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s w a n t e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e s e d a t a ( e x c e p t for t h e PIN) b y t e r m i n a l to B r i g h t o n, E n g l a n d, w h e r e t h e a c c o u n t s w e r e p r o c e s s e d. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n f o u n d t h e n u m b e r of d a t a - s u b j e c t s "not u n u s u a l l y l a r g e " a n d t h e d a t a o f l i m i t e d s e n s i t i v i t y. It f o u n d n o r e a s o n to f e a r u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s a b r o a d, a n d g r a n t e d the l i c e n s e. A s a c o n d i t i o n, d a t a o n c u s t o m e r s w a s t o b e d e l e t e d a f t e r t h r e e y e a r s. In t h i s c a s e, t h e n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t i n t e r e s t is l e s s p r o n o u n c e d t h a n in the T h o r n c a s e, as t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n n o r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e to a p r o c e s s i n g in B r i g h t o n. N e v e r t h e l e s s, if any p r i n c i p l e h a s b e e n g i v e n p r i o r i t y, it m u s t h a v e b e e n t his. A n d in t h i s c a s e, t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n i n t e r e s t is e v i d e n t. T h o u g h t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t the d a t a e x p o r t e d is o f a n o n - s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e, t h e w h o l e c a s e s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d in t h e c o n t e x t of c r e d i t r e p o r t i n g. A n d t h e t r a c k l e f t b y a c r e d i t c a r d w i l l u s u a l l y d i s c l o s e q u i t e a bit o f a p e r s o n ' s h a b i t s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s. T h o u g h t h e s e d a t a a r e c o m m u n i c a t e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f s a l e s to A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s, a n d a r e n o t s u b j e c t to t h e S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, it c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e d e c i s i o n s h o u l d be a s s e s s e d. A n d t h e r e f o r e t h i s c a s e m a y b e c o n s t r u e d as an e x a m p l e w h e r e the p r i n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t is g i v e n p r i o r i t y o v e r the p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n.

44 36 (4) The PKbank case T h i s c a s e w a s d e c i d e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d S e p t e m b e r 15th, (D n r ). O n e o f the m a j o r S w e d i s h b a n k s, P o s t - o c h K r e d i t b a n k e n, g e n e r a l l y k n o w n as " P K b a n k e n ", a p p l i e d for l i c e n s e in o r d e r to p r o c e s s t h e i r r e g i s t e r o f d e p o s i t s. T h e m a j o r i t y of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s w e r e f o r e i g n b a n k s a n d o t h e r l e g a l p e r s o n s - n o t b e i n g s u b j e c t to the S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. A s m a l l n u m b e r of p h y s i c a l p e r s o n s w e r e a l s o i n c l u d e d - at the t i m e of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o n l y s e v e n. T h e r e g i s t e r i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s of data: - N a m e a n d a d d r e s s of c l i e n t - T y p e o f t r a n s a c t i o n ( d e p o s i t o r loan) - T y p e o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y - S u m - I n t e r e s t r a t e for d e p o s i t a n d loan - D u r a t i o n of t r a n s a c t i o n - S u m o f i n t e r e s t, ie s u m on t h e d a y of p a y m e n t - I n s t r u c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g p a y m e n t - S u m m a r i e s of all c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s w i t h c e r t a i n c l i e n t w i t h d e t a i l s of as i n d i c a t e d a b o v e - S u m m a r i e s of l i q u i d i t y a n d p e r i o d e s for the banks' o w n u s e w i t h o u t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c l i e n t s T h e r e p o r t s b a s i c to the r e g i s t e r w a s to be m a i l e d o r t e l e x e d e a c h F r i d a y a n d t w o d a y s b e f o r e t h e l a s t b a n k i n g d a y of the m o n t h to t h e P K b a n k 1s d a u g h t e r b a n k in L u x e m b o u r g. H e r e the d a t a w e r e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d s y s t e m s h a r e d b e t w e e n t h e d a u g h t e r b a n k a n d a n o t h e r b a n k, u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n of the p e r s o n e l l of the d a u g h t e r b a n k. T h e p r o c e s s i n g r e s u l t e d in a n u m b e r o f lists, s o m e p r o d u c e d e a c h w e e k, s o m e e a c h m o n t h. T h e s e WPTP i mm

45 37 t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d f i l e s w e r e d e l e t e d. It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a t e m p o r a r y one, l a s t i n g for an e s t i m a t e d p e r i o d o f t w o y e a r s, w h i le t h e P K b a n k in S t o c k h o l m e s t a b l i s h e d its o w n c o m p u t e r i z e d s y s t e m. In a s s e s s i n g t h e c a s e, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d f o u n d no t h r e a t to t h e i n f r i n g e m e n t o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n. T h e b o a r d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the n u m b e r o f p e r s o n a l d a t a i t e m s w a s s m a l l, a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e c o m p u t e r i z e d o n l y for t h e p e r i o d n e c e s s a r y for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d l i s t s. A s t h e b a n k h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e n e e d w a s t e m p o r a r y, the l i c e n s e w a s l i m i t e d to l a s t i n g u n t i l D e c e m b e r 3 1st, ( s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n t w o y e a r s ). In a s s e s s i n g t h i s c a s e, o n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h i s r e g i s t e r w a s a t y p i c a l as a r e g i s t e r o f p e r s o n a l d a t a in t h e t e r m s of the S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. O n l y a v e r y s m a l l n u m b e r o f p h y s i c a l p e r s o n s w e r e i n c l u d e d - a n d t h e c o n t e x t w o u l d s e e m to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e a p p e a r e d as f i n a n c e r s r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s. O n e c e r t a i n l y is w i t h i n an a r e a w h e r e t r a d i t i o n a l " p r i v a c y " c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w o u l d n o t w e i g h h e a v i l y. L o o k i n g t o w a r d s t h e i n t e r e s t s i d e n t i f i e d as a b a s i s f o r the a n a l y s i s, o n e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e s e d a t a - s u b j e c t s a r e d e f i n i t e l y o f f e r e d e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. T h o u g h b r i e f l y p r o c e s s e d a b r o a d, the d a t a s t i l l a r e w i t h i n t h e s a m e S w e d i s h o r g a n i z a t i o n, t h e r e a r e a d e q u a t e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s t a k e n a b r o a d, a n d t h e u s e a n d s t o r a g e of t h e d a t a t a k e s p l a c e in S w e d e n. T h e p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c i n t e r e s t s a r e small, as t h i s is a t e m p o r a r y m e a s u r e of a S w e d i s h c o m p a n y u s i n g a f f i l i t a t e d s e r v i c e s a b r o a d. N e v e r t h e l e s s it is a c a s e w h e r e a f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u is g i v e n n o t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t. In c o n t r a s t to the t h r e e o t h e r c a s e s, t h i s d e c i s i o n c o n c e r n s a S w e d i s h p a r e n t c o m p a n y c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h a f o r e i g n a f f i l i a t e d c o m p a n y. T h i s m a y m a k e a d i f f e r e n c e in r e s p e c t of the i n t e r e s t

46 38 o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m - b u t as w e h a v e seen, t h i s i n t e r e s t h a s not b e e n p r e s e n t in t h e o t h e r c a s e s.

47 I m p o r t of d a t a It is o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d t h a t t h e S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - as i n d e e d m o s t n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n s - r e g u l a t e s o n l y t he e x p o r t of data, n o t t h e i m p o r t of d a t a. T h e r e a s o n is q u i t e o b v i o u s - t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s is g e n e r a l l y b a s e d o n the i n t e r e s t in e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. I m p o r t of d a t a i m p l i e s t h a t f o r e i g n e r s w i l l p o s s i b l y e n j o y t h e p r o t e c t i o n d e s i g n e d f o r n a t i o n a l s - but t h i s c r e a t e s n o p o l i c y i s s u e. H o w e v e r, it m a y be m e n t i o n e d t h a t a c o u p l e o f l i c e n s e s w h e r e i m p o r t of d a t a t a k e p l a c e, h a v e b e e n d i s c l o s e d. O n e s u c h l i c e n s e c o n c e r n s t h e W H O C o l l a b o r a t i o n C e n t e r on I n t e r n a t i o n a l D r u g M o n i t o r i n g ( d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d o n M a r c h 8th, (Dnr ). T h e s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d to r e p o r t on s i d e - e f f e c t s of m e d i c a m e n t s. T h i s i n c l u d e s r e p o r t s f r o m n a t i o n a l W H O c e n t e r s - a l l t o g e t h e r 22 c e n t e r s, a n d at t h e t i m e of the a p p l i c a t i o n, a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e p o r t s w e r e p a r t of t h e s y s t e m. T h r o u g h a r e f e r e n c e n u m b e r t h e o r i g i n a l r e p o r t m a y be i d e n t i f i e d, b e i n g kept in p a p e r form. In t h i s o r i g i n a l, i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l g e n e r a l l y b e i d e n t i f i e d. T h e s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d to b e a c c e s s e d b y t e r m i n a l s, a n d at t h e t i m e o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n, o n e s u c h t e r m i n a l w a s l o c a t e d at W H O i n G e n e v a. In r e s p e c t t o t h i s c a s e, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d f o u n d t h a t its e s t a b l i s h m e n t h a d b e e n d e c i d e d b y the g o v e r n m e n t, a n d that it w o u l d not h a v e a u t h o r i t y u n d e r t h e act t o r e f u s e l i c e n s e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d m a y, h o w e v e r, in s u c h c a s e s d e c i d e o n t h e d e t a i l s of the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r e g i s t e r, a n d a n u m b e r

48 40 o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w e r e m a d e in t h i s r e s p e c t. A s p e c i a l n o t e w a s m a d e of the r e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows, w h i c h w o u l d t a k e e f f e c t in c a s e d a t a w e r e e x p o r t e d in an i d e n t i f i a b le f o r m f r o m t h e r e g i s t e r. A s e c o n d c a s e c o n s e r n s the S w e d i s h s e r v i c e b u r e a u D a t e m a - l e t t e r o f M a r c h 27th, 1981 (Dnr ). T h i s b u r e a u a l s o s e r v e s N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s, a n d the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n r e m i n d s D a t e m a t h a t r e g i s t e r s, for i n s t a n c e in t h e f o r m of p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t s, a n d p r o c e s s e d on a b u r e a u c o n t r a c t for N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s, b e c o m e a r e g i s t e r in S w e d e n a n d s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e. A n d in o r d e r to r e e x p o r t t h e r e g i s t e r, D a t e m a r e q u i r e d a l i c e n s e as w e l l. A s p e c i a l s t a n d a r d m e t h o d w a s s u g g e s t e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n. D a t e m a is p a r t of o u r c a s e file, a n d w e w i l l r e t u r n to t h i s c a s e t h e r e. A t t h i s p o i n t w e p o i n t o u t the fact t h a t t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n m a y s o m e t i m e s w o r k c o n t r a r y to the i n t e r e s t s of the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u. A s s u b j e c t to a r a t h e r s t r i c t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e a b i l i t y t o w a r d s f o r e i g n b u r e a u x m a y b e r e d u c e d. T h i s is the o p p o s i t e e f f e c t i m p l i e d by t h e c r i t i c s of E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - b u t does, of c o u r s e, o n l y a p p l y for t h o s e b u r e a u x t r y i n g to o p e r a t e on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t.

49 41 4. D e n m a r k 4. 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n R e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s in t h e D a n i s h l e g i s l a t i o n is m u c h m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e g u l a t i o n in t h e S w e d i s h (and N o r w e q i a n ) l e g i s l a t i o n. D e n m a r k h a s t w o s t a t u t e s, o n e for the p r i v a t e a n d o n e f o r t h e p u b l i c s e c tor. O n l y the p r i v a t e s e c t o r l é g i s l a t i o n c o n t r o l s t r a n s n a t i o nal d a t a f l o w s d i r e c t l y, a n d is o b v i o u s l y of m o s t i n t e r e s t in o u r c o n t e x t. L i c e n s e of t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e Au'-hority is r e q u i r e d o n l y in t w o c a s e s ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c t 21): (1) if t h e d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d in D e n m a r k for i n c l u s i o n in a s y s t e m s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e ( c : e d i t r e p o r t i n g or b l a c k l i s t i n g ), o r s e n s i t i v e d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d for i n c l u s i o n in a f o r e i g n r e g i s t e r ; or (2) e x p o r t of a r e g i s t e r a s s u c h f o r p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d, if t h e r e g i s t e r i n c l u d e s s e n s i t i v e d.ita. In a d d i t i o n, t h e e x p o r t e r in t h e l a t t e r c a s e is o b l i g e d by c o n t r a c t t o e s t a b l i s h a d e q u a t e s e c u r i t y in t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c t 7) - a f o r m of e x p o r t o f D a n i s h s t a n d a r d s t h r o u g h c o n t r a c t. A l s o, a D a n i s h s e r v i c e b u r e a u s h o u l d n o t e x p o r t r e g i s t e r s for p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e o w n e r of tlie r e g i s t e r ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c t 20). F i n a l l y, o n e s h a l l n o t e a n e g a t i v i ai e c of D a n i s h law ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c 21(2)) - e v e n if a r e g i s t e r includc-s s e n s i t i v e data, n< l i c e n s e is r e q u i r e ] w i t h r e s p e c t

50 42 "... t o a r e g i s t e r w h i c h is f o u n d in D e n m a r k s o l e l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e of u n d e r g o i n g e l e c t r o n i c d a t a p r o c e s s i n g ". T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t if a D a n i s h b u r e a u is p r o c e s s i n g r e g i s t e r s f or a c l i e n t in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y, a n d t h i s r e g i s t e r i n c l u d e s s e n s t i v e d a t a, the i m p o r t, p r o c e s s i n g a n d e x p o r t m a y t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t t r i g g e r i n g o f f a n y c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s. T h i s m a y be c o m p a r e d to t h e s i t u a t i o n in S w e d e n, w h e r e in this s i t u a t i o n t h e r e g i s t e r w o u l d b e c o m e s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e u n d e r S w e d i s h law. T h u s, t h e D a n i s h l e g i s l a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t has f o u n d a f l e x i b l e s o l u t i o n e c o u r a g i n g the n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e i n d u s t r y - w h i c h m a y p e r h a p s b e s e e n as a m e a s u r e to m a k e the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x m o r e c o m p e t i t i v e o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t. L o o k i n g at t h i s set of r e g u l a t i o n in the p e r s p e c t i v e of o u r i n t e r e s t, w e s e e that p r o t e c t i o n i s m is h a r d l y a m a j o r c a u s e b e h i n d t h e r u l e s. O n l y in the c a s e s w h e r e r e g i s t e r s c o n t a i n s e n s i t i v e d a t a a r e t h e r e r e s t r i c t i o n s on the u s e of f o r e i g n b u r e a u x - a n d o b v i o u s l y t h i s w i l l be a t y p i c a l c a s e in w h i c h t he e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a c e n t r a l p o i n t. T h i s is e v e n m o r e so w i t h r e s p e c t to r e g i s t e r s for c r e d i t r e p o r t i n g a n d b l a c k l i s t i n g - t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s h e r e o b v i o u s l y m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to a v o i d e s c a p e f r o m D a n i s h j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h r o u g h i n t e r n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g. T h e c l a u s e s for i m p l e m e n t i n g s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s t h r o u g h c o n t r a c t is a l s o a d e v i c e f o r e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. T y p i c a l l y, n o l i c e n s e a n d n o r e s t r i c t i o n w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y in D e n m a r k for u s i n g f o r e i g n s e r v i c e s. In t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e, it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d that t h e r e e x i s t few l e g a l p r e c e d e n t s on t h i s p o i n t.

51 C o l l e c t i o n of d a t a in D e n m a r k S u c h c o l l e c t i o n is s u b j e c t t o l i c e n s e in t h r e e c a s e s : If the d a t a is t o b e i n c l u d e d i n t o a f o r e i g n s y s t e m w i t h t h e p u r p o s e of - c r e d i t r e p o r t i n g, or - b l a c k l i s t i n g, or - a f o r e i g n s y s t e m c o n t a i n i n g s e n s i t i v e data. O b v i o u s l y t h i s r e g u l a t i o n h a s a p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o n t h e u s e of f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x, as l i c e n s e w o u l d h a v e to be o b t a i n e d for t h e D a n i s h c l i e n t if t h e f o r e i g n s y s t e m h a d o n e of t h e t w o q u a l i f i e d p u r p o s e s, o r if the d a t a t o b e i n c l u d e d w e r e of a s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e. T h i s r e m a i n s, h o w e v e r, o n l y a p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t. T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y h a d (by 1980) r e c e i v e d no a p p l i c a t i o n f o r s u c h a c t i v i t i e s. A n u m b e r o f r e q u e s t s w a s m a d e b y c i t i z e n s on t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e i r p e r s o n a l d a t a in f o r e i g n m a i l o r d e r s y s t e m s. T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y f o u n d t h a t t h e s e d a t a g e n e r a l ly h a d b e e n b o u g h t t h r o u g h a D a n i s h a g e n c y, an a c t i v i t y b e i n g in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h D a n i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n.

52 E x p o r t of s e n s i t i v e r e g i s t e r s In t h e s p e c i a l c a s e w h e r e a r e g i s t e r of a s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e is e x p o r t e d for p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d, a l i c e n s e is r e q u i r e d. A l s o in t h i s r e s p e c t, the D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y l a c k s d e c i s i o n s. A c a s e m a y be m e n t i o n e d in w h i c h t h e S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n i n f o r m e d the D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y o f t h e i r l i c e n s i n g of t h e p r o c e s s i n g of a r e g i s t e r on D a n i s h e m p l o y e e s at a S w e d i s h b u r e a u ( Å r s b e r e t n i n g :91). T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y i n v e s t i g a t e d this c a s e, a n d f o u n d t h a t the D a n i s h c l i e n t w.?s an o r g a n i z a t i o n of e m p l o y e e s. In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h p r i v a t e s e c t o r act sect 7, t h i s c l i e n t h a d c o n t r a c t e d f o r s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s, w h i c h w e r e f o u n d a d e q u a t e, a n d p o i n t e d a l s o to t h e S w e d i s h l i c e n s e as a g u a r a n t e e of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. T h e r e g i s t e r d i d not c o n t a i n s e n s i t i v e d a t a e l e m e n t s, a n d the b u s i n e s s t r a n s a c t i o n w a s in p e r f e c t a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e D a n i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n.

53 S e r v i c e b u r e a u x By 1980, t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y h a d i d e n t i f i e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n g a g e d in a c t i v i e s as c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e r m s of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n. Of t h e s e o n l y h a l f w e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h the m a i n p u r p o s e of d a t a p r o c e s s i n g f o r t h i r d p a r t i e s. A c c o r d i n g to t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r act s e c t 20, a r e g i s t e r m a y n o t be p r o c e s s e d a b r o a d b y t h e b u r e a u u n l e s s p e r m i s s i o n f r o m the o w n e r (ie the c l i e n t ) is s e c u r e d. T o w h a t e x t e n t t h i s t a k e s p l a c e c a n n o t be d e r i v e d for i n f o r m a t i o n h e l d at t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y, as a c a s e w o u l d be b r o u g h t t o t h e i r n o t i c e o n l y w h e n e i t h e r t h e r e g i s t e r c o n t a i n e d s e n s i t i v e data a n d t h e r e f o r e the e x p o r t w o u l d r e q u i r e a l i c e n s e ( a b o v e at (2)), or t h e o w n e r f o u n d t h a t t h e b u r e a u v i o l a t e d t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e act. N o s u c h c a s e s h a v e b e e n found. T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y has, h o w e v e r, m a d e a s t a t e m e n t on t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s of c o n s e n t ( A r s m e l d i n g : ) : "T h e s t a t u t e h a s not l a i d d o w n v e r y f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e s to t h e c o n s e n t w h i c h the o w n e r o f t h e r e g i s t e r is t o g i v e b e f o r e s t o r a g e o r p r o c e s s i n g b y o t h e r b u r e a u x or a b r o a d m a y t a k e p l a c e. A n o r a l c o n s e n t w i l l a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e s u f f i c e n t, b u t in r e s p e c t t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of e v i d e n c e, o n e s h o u l d g i v e s u c h a c o n s e n t in a w r i t t e n form. In a d d i t i o n o n e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r t h e c o n s e n t h a s to b e c o n c r e t e, ie w h e t h e r t h e o w n e r of t h e r e g i s t e r h a v e to c o n s e n t t o p r o c e s s i n g at a c e r t a i n b u r e a u o r to t h e s t o r a

54 46 g e of c o p i e s at a c e r t a i n p l a c e. W h e n s t o r i n g o r p r o c e s s i n g of r e g i s t e r s b y o t h e r s in the c o u n t r y, a g e n e r a l c o n s e n t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t to s a t i s f y the s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s. But w h e n s t o r i n g or p r o c e s s i n g t a k e s p l a c e a b r o a d, the o w n e r s h o u l d i n c l u d e a s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the n a m e a n d a d d r e s s of t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u in q u e s t i o n." T h u s o n e w i l l f i n d h e r e a s l i g h t p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c taint, as the r e q u i r e m e n t s for c o n s e n t a r e s o m e w h a t m o r e s p e c i f i c w i t h r e s p e c t to f o r e i g n t h a n n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x. T h i s, h o w e v e r, s e e m s to h a v e b e e n d o n e m a i n l y t o f a c i l i t a t e the o w n e r ' s c o n t r o l w i t h h i s o w n r e g i s t e r, a n d w o u l d s e e m to be a m i n o r p o i n t in the c o n t r o l o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows.

55 C o n c l u s i o n A s the l e g i s l a t i v e b a c k g r o u n d l e a d s us to b e l i e v e, l i t t l e is to be f o u n d in t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y on t h e c o n t r o l of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s. It w o u l d s e e m s a f e to c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e i m p a c t o n t h i s f l o w h a s b e e n m i n o r, a n d c e r t a i n l y t h a t n o p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c u s e of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n is to be found.

56 48 5. N o r w a y O n e o f t h e m o r e o u t s p o k e n c o n f r o n t a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e c r i t i c s of E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n, is r e l a t e d to the N o r w e g i a n l e g i s l a t i o n. T h e r e a s o n m a y be t h a t N o r w a y, as o n e of t h e few c o u n t r i e s so far, h a s i n c l u d e d c o n t r o l o f d a t a a l s o on l e g a l p e r s o n s in its d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, t h e r e b y e x t e n d i n g t h e s c o p e of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n b e y o n d t h o s e l i m i t s w h i c h a r e r e a s o n a b l y r e l a t e d to w h a t is c o n s i d e r e d " p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y ". T h i s m a y be, h o w e v e r, m a i n l y a w o r d - p l a y, s i n c e the E u r o p e a n l e g i s l a t i o n is n o t so m u c h r e l a t e d to the t r a d i t i o n a l " p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y " as t o a m o r e p r o c e d u r a l " d a t a p r o t e c t i o n ". T h e c o n t f r o n t a t i o n w a s i n i t i a t e d b y C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d N o 53 for M a y 1982, in w h i c h s e n a t o r H a r t c i t e d a n a r t i c l e by A r t h u r A B u s h k i n, a f o r m e r s p e c i a l a s s i s t a n t for i n f o r m a t i o n p o l i c y at T h e N a t i o n a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d I n f o r m a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a tion, a n d w h o a l s o h a s t a k e n p a r t in t h e O E C D c o m m i t t e e s on t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s. H i s a r t i c l e a p p e a r e d in L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s, M a y 3rd, 1 982, a n d c i t i n g N o r w e g i a n l e g i s l a t i o n as an e x a m p l e of a l e g i s l a t i o n b e i n g u s e d to r e d u c e t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows. R e s p o n d i n g to t his, t h e d i r e c t o r of the N o r w e g i a n D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e s t r o n g l y r e f u t e d t h a t any p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c f e a t u r e s are to be f o u n d in t h e N o r w e g i a n law or p r a c t i c e ( A f t e n p o s t e n A u g u s t 10th, ). He t a k e s the p o s i t i o n as d e m o n s t r a t e d in e a r l i e r i n t e r v e n t i o n s on h i s p art, t h a t no e v i d e n c e c a n be i d e n t i f i e d for s u c h an a s s e s s m e n t. In a r e s p o n s e to a r e p o r t p u b l i s h e d b y t h e U S S p e c i a l T r a d e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e of M a r c h 27th, 1981, S e i p s t a t e s q u i t e b l u n t l y (1981:33)

57 49 "... it is s u f f i c i e n t to s t a t e f i r m l y t h a t n o p r o t e c t i o n - s it m o t i v e s e x i s t f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f N o r w e g i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. S u c h m o t i v e s a r e n e i t h e r i n d i c a t e d b y t h e l e g i s l a t i v e h i s t o r y o f t h e A c t n o r b y t h e w a y it h a s m a d e i t s e l f f e l t in p r a c t i c e. " N o r w a y h a s in p r i n c i p l e q u i t e a s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n o f e x p o r t of d a t a (but, a g i a n - o n l y o n e x p o r t - as t o i m p o r t t h e r e a r e no r e s t r i c t i o n s ), c f r s e c t 36. In p r i n c i p l e a l i c e n s e is r e q u i r e d if d a t a is to be i n c l u d e d i n t o a s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d h a v e r e q u i r e d l i c e n s e p r o v i d e d t h a t it h a d b e e n u n d e r N o r w e g i a n j u r i s d i c t i o n, or t h e e x p o r t o f r e g i s t e r s a r e e i t h e r c o m p u t e r i z e d or c o n t a i n s e n s i t i v e d a t a. T h i s s t r i c t r u l e has, h o w e v e r, b e e n r e d u c e d to a d u t y o f g i v i n g n o t i c e to t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e t h r o u g h r e g u l a t o r y law p u r s u a n t to s e c t 36. T h e n u m b e r o f s u c h n o t i c e s h a v e b e e n r a t h e r s m a l l. B y S e p t m e - b e r 20th, 1982 o n l y 34 n o t i c e s w e r e r e g i s t e r e d at t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. In n o n e of t h e s e c a s e s t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e h a d u s e d i t s a u t h o r i t y t o f o r b i d t h e f low, a n d o n l y in t w o c a s e s its a u t h o r i t y h a s b e e n u s e d t o s e t m o r e d e t a i l e d c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r a b r o a d. T h i s a s p e c t h a s n o t b e e n m e n t i o n e d in t h e f i r s t t w o a n n u a l r e p o r t s of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e (for a n d 1981). T h e t w o c a s e s in w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r a b r o a d w e r e set, c o n c e r n e d S m o k e n d e r s a n d IBM. S m o k e n d e r s N o r g e A / S is a c o m p a n y s p e c i a l i z i n g in c o u r s e s f a c i l i t a t i n g s m o k e r s to s t o p s m o k i n g. In o r d e r to c u s t o m i z e t h e i r s e r v i c e s, a n u m b e r of d a t a o n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e c o l l e c t e d, a n d this r e g i s t e r w a s g i v e n l i c e n s e u n d e r N o r w e g i a n law. It c o n t a i n e d a n u m b e r o f i n t i m a t e a n d s e n s i t i v e data:

58 50 - r e g i s t r a t i o n n u m b e r - name - a d d r e s s - t e l e p h o e - d a t e of b i r t h - h e i g h t - w e i g h t - sex - m a r t i a l s t a t u s - c h i l d r e n - job, e m p l o y e r, p o s i t i o n - e d u c a t i o n - h o b b i e s - c o n s u m a t i o n of t o b a c c o - b r a n d of t o b a c c o - age - w h e n s t a r t e d s m o k i n g, n u m b e r of y e a r s - e a r l i e r a t t e m p t s to s t o p - h a b i t s of s p o u s e, if any, a n d v i e w on s m o k i n g o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s - s m o k i n g as c a u s e of c a r a c c i d e n t s - s m o k i n g as c a u s e of f i r e s - r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f f o r m e r p a r t i c i p a n t s - o p t i o n a l : r e l i a n c e on drugs, a l c h o h o l or o t h e r s t i m u l a n t s - d a t e o f l a s t r o e n g t e n test, a d v i c e of s m o k i n g a n d s t o p p i n g - w e e k l y c o n s u m a t i o n of c o f f e e, tea a n d c o l a - a s s e s s m e n t of o w n w e i g h t - m a y i n f o r m a t i o n on r e s u l t be c o m m u n i c a t e d to d e n t i s t or m e d i c a l d o c t o r - n a m e a n d a d d r e s s In t h e l i c e n s e, s e c t 4.3, t h e s e d a t a w e r e p e r m i t t e d c o m m u n i c a t e d t o the p a r e n t c o m p a n y in the US, but o n l y in a n o n y m i z e d v e r s i o n for the p r o d u c t i o n of s t a t i s t i c s. A l s o, a w r i t t e n c o n s e n t f r o m the d a t a s u b j e c t w a s r e q u i r e d for a n y c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f d a t a to t h i r d D a r t i p s.

59 51 T h i s w o u l d s e e m to be q u i t e a t r i v i a l e x a m p l e, i n t e r e s t i n g m a i n l y d u e to t h e e x t e n s i v e a n d i n - d e p t h r e g i s t r a t i o n of p e r s o n a l data. T h e r e s t r i c t i o n o n t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s w o u l d n o t s e e m s e v e r e - t h e h o m e c o m p a n y r e q u i r e d d a t a o n l y f o r s t a t i s t i c a l p u r p o s e s, a n d t h e e x c l u s i o n of i d e n t i f y i n g e l e m e n t s w o u l d t h e n s e e m to b e a m i n i m u m a c t i o n t a k e n t o s e c u r e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s. T h e s e c o n d c a s e c o n c e r n e d n o t i c e f r o m I B M ( N o r w a y ) A / S on t r a n s f e r o f d a t a o n e m p l o y e e s to t h e h e a d o f f i c e in P a r i s. T h e c a s e is q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h e S i e m e n s c a s e m e n t i o n e d f r o m S w e den, b u t t h e p u r p o s e of t h e I B M s y s t e m w a s o n l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s t a t i s t i c s. T h e t r a n s f e r w a s n o t e d w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n m a d e e x p l i c i t t h a t the d a t a s h o u l d n o t i n c l u d e i d e n t i f y i n g p a r t i c u l ars. It was, h o w e v e r, a f a c t t h a t t h e N o r w e g i a n s t a f f w a s t o o s m a l l for t h e d e l e t i o n of u n i q u e i d e n t i f y e r s l i k e e m p l o y e e n u m b e r, n a m e a n d P I N to s e c u r e a n o n y m i t y. T h i s i n d i r e c t p o s s i b i l i t y of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w a s, h o w e v e r, a c c e p t e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. A g a i n, t h i s m a y be s e e n as an u n c o m p l i c a t e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e act. A s t h e p u r p o s e w a s s t a t i s t i c a l, t h e i d e n t i f y e r s w e r e t h o u g h t u n n e c e s s a r y a n d e x c l u d e d in o r d e r t o s t r e n g t h e n e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. F r a n c e, o f c o u r s e, h a s a d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - a n d p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e l e v e l of p r o t e c t i o n are p r o b a b l y n o t t h e c a u s e for t h e r e s t r i c t i o n. It m a y p e r h a p s be f o u n d in c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in t h e S i e m e n s c a s e in S w e d e n - s e c u r i n g e m p l o y e e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e c o - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e u s e o f the d ata, w h i c h is a c e n t r a l p o i n t in the N o r w e g i a n r e g i m e of e m p l o y e e d a t a. It is o b v i o u s f r o m t h i s r e v i e w t h a t t h e N o r w e g i a n s i t u a t i o n is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a far f r o m r e s t r i c t i v e p o l i c y. T h o u g h the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o f f e r s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s e v e r e c o n t r o l r e g i m e, t h i s is r e d u c e d to a d u t y o f n o t i f i c a t i o n in r e g u l a t o r y law. T h e s m a l l n u m b e r o f n o t i c e s c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a tes t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f e x p o r t s s u b j e c t to t h e l a w s t i l l

60 52 t a k e s p l a c e w i t h o u t a n o t i c e b e i n g f i l e d w i t h t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. B u t of t h e c a s e s b r o u g h t to the a t t e n t i o n of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e, n o s e v e r e m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n t a k e n - a n d t h e t w o c a s e s in w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n e x p l i c i t l y f o r m u l a t e d, t h e s e c a n n o t s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s that d a t a f l o w s a r e b e i n g r e d u c e d. O n e m a y i n d e e d be s o m e w h a t c o n c e r n e d that t h e i m p r e s s i o n of h a v i n g i m p o s e d a s t r i c t r e g i m e, c o n v e y e d by the w o r d s of the a c t i t s e l f a n d f o r e i g n c o m m e n t s, m a y h a v e d e f l e c t e d c r i t i c i s m a n d i n t e r e s t s in the p r a c t i c e of t h e law. T h e r e m a y t o d a y be p e r h a p s a r a t h e r t o o l a r g e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the r e g i m e as i m p l i e d b y the s t a t u t e, a n d t h e law in a c t i o n as set o u t b y the r e g u l a t o r y law a n d the p r a c t i c e o f t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. P e r h a p s o n e m o r e n e g a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d. T h e f a c t t h a t the N o r w e g i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n i n c l u d e s d a t a o n l e g a l p e r s o n s d o e s n o t at a l l s e e m to h a v e h a d a n y i n f l u e n c e on the p r a c t i c e o f the D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. T h e r e is a l a c k of r e f e r e n c e to of t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e in t h e c a s e s. F i n a l l y, it s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e r e are no i n d i c a t i o n s of t h i s l e n t i e n t p o l i c y to be c h a n g e d in a m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e d i r e c t i o n. O n t h e c o n t r a r y, c u r r e n t s i g n a l s h e r a l d a l i b e r a l i z a t i o n.

61 53 6. T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y T h e G e r m a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n i n s t i t u t e s the f e d e r a l D a t e n s c h u t z b e a u f t r a g t e r, b u t t h i s o f f i c e h a s a v e r y m o d e s t r o l e w i t h r e s p e c t to the r e g u l a t i o n o f u s e of f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x. T h e G e r m a n B D S G s e c t 24 s t a t e s t h a t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l d a t a is a l l o w e d if it s e r v e s a "... c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o r q u a s i - c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p... p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t o f p e r s o n s w a r r a n t i n g p r o t e c t i o n a r e n o t h a r m e d t h e r e b y ". U s e of a f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u w i l l p r e s u m e a c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p, a n d t h e u s e of s u c h a b u r e a u is c o n s e q u e n t l y p e r m i t t e d u n d e r t h e G e r m a n act. T h e o n l y p r o b l e m w o u l d be w h e t h e r t h i s r e d u c e s the p r o t e c t i o n of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s t o s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t t h e y a r e " h a r m e d t h e r e b y ". O b v i o u s l y, it is t h e i n t e r e s t o f " e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n " w h i c h is g i v e n p r i o r i t y by the G e r m a n l e g i s l a t i o n. O n l y w h e n t h i s i n t e r e s t is r e l e v a n t, r e s t r i c t i o n s m a y b e i m p o s e d o n t h e u s e of f o r e i g n b u r e a u x. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e " l e v e l o f p r o t e c t i o n " in t h e r e l e v a n t c o u n t r y is i m p o r t a n t. T h e f e d e r a l c o m m i s s i o ner, H a n s - P e t e r B u l l, h a s s t a t e d ( : 1 4 ) that t h o u g h c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d in t h e s e c a s e s, as a r u l e "... i n t e r e s t s w a r r a n t i n g p r o t e c t i o n a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be h a r m e d p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e d a t a c o m m u n i c a t e d a r e l i m i t e d to t h e c u s t o m e r ' s n a m e a n d the f a c t t h a t h e h a s o r d e r e d a s p e c i f i c c o m m o d i t y. " In t h e c a s e of f o r e i g n b u r e a u x, h o w e v e r, m a n y m o r e d a t a w o u l d b e c o m m u n i c a t e d. T h e r e f o r e, t h e G e r m a n l e g i s l a t i o n w i l l be r e s t r i c t i v e w h e n the b u r e a u is l o c a t e d in a j u r i s d i c a t i o n l a c

62 54 k i n g n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. M r B u l l has, h o w e ver, i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s m a y be s o l v e d by c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ( lc 14), a c o n t r a c t e n s u r i n g the d a t a s u b j e c t s a b r o a d t h e s a m e p r o t e c t i o n g r a n t e d t h o s e w i t h i n t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c. O n e w i l l r e c o g n i z e t h i s s o l u t i o n a s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t m a d e s t a t u t o r y in t h e D a n i s h law o n d a t a s e c u r i t y. T h e r e w o u l d s e e m in the F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c no g r e a t i n i t a t i v e t o w a r d s an a m e n d m e n t of t h i s r e g u l a t i o n (cfr B u l l : 1 4 ). T h i s r e g u l a t i o n w o u l d a l s o h a r d l y s e e m to be p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c, b u t f i r m l y f o u n d e d on t h e p r i o r i t y of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. If e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n is o f f e r e d in the j u r i s d i c t i o n in w h i c h the b u r e a u is l o c a t e d, no r e s t r i c t i o n s a p p l i e s t o the u s e o f t h a t b u r e a u. T h e r e has, h o w e v e r, b e e n o n e i n c i d e n t w h i c h c r e a t e d q u i t e an i m p a c t, a n d w h i c h at t h a t t i m e w a s t h o u g h t to be an e x a m p l e of p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a s u r e s. A n i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e B u n d e s p o s t o f D e c e m b e r 27th, 1978 a n n o u n c e d t h a t it w a s c l o s i n g d o w n a few i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a s e d l ines w h i c h d i d n o t c o m p ly w i t h t h e B u n d e s p o s t c u r r e n t s t a n d a r d s. T h e u s e r s w e r e o f f e r e d t h e u s e o f the p u b l i c p a c k e t o r c i r c u i t s w i t c h e d n e t w o r k. T h e i n t e r i m p e r i o d w a s e x t e n d e d u n t i l J a n u a r y 1st, 1982 by a n o t h e r i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n of A p r i l 2nd, T h e n u m b e r of u s e r s e f f e c t e d by t h i s r e g u l a t i o n w a s 16. E a c h of t h e u s e r s w e r e c o n t a c t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y by the B u n d e s p o s t, a n d b y s p r i n g 1980 a b o u t half of t h e m h a d n e g o t i a t e d a s o l u t i o n. T h i s a c t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e B u n d e s p o s t was, by s o m e o b s e r v e r s, s e e n as u s i n g d a t a p r o t e c t i o n for p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a n s. T h i s o b v i o u s l y is a m i s c o n c e i v e d v i e w. A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the C o m p u t i n g S e r v i c e s A s s o c i a t i o n (UK) s u m m e d up his v i e w in this w a y ( E y e i o n s : 5 ) :

63 55 t h e t w o m o s t p r o f i t a b l e p u b l i c s e r v i c e s. T e l e x a n d t h e p u b l i c s w i t c h e d t e l e p h o n e n e t w o r k, b e c a u s e t r a f f i c is b e i n g d i v e r t e d o n t o t h e m o r e e c o n o m i c p r i v a t e l e a s e d lines. P T T s a r e a l s o l o s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r m u l t i p l e u s e of l e a s e d l i n e s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d for d i r e c t t e r m i n a l - t o - t e r m i n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s or m e s s a g e s w i t c h i n g in v i o l a t i o n of l e a s e d - l i n e s t a r i f f s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s. M o r e o ver, w h e r e t h e P T T s h a v e i n c u r r e d h u g e e x p e n s e by i n v e s t i n g in n e w p u b l i c n e t w o r k s, t h e y h a v e to f o r c e c u s t o m e r s a w a y f r o m l e a s e d l i n e s o n t o t h e n e t w o r k e i t h e r b y p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e o r b y r e g u l a t i o n. I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s is the s i m p l e e c o n o m i c e x p l a i n t a t i o n for t h e p r e s e n t r e s t r i c t i o n o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a s e d l i n e s in G e r m a n y. " E y e i o n s a l s o s t a t e s t h a t o n e h a s not f o u n d a n y m e m b e r of the C o m p u t i n g S e r v i c e s A s s o c i a t i o n a d m i t t i n g a d v e r s e e f f e c t s of t h e B u n d e s p o s t r e g u l a t i o n. T h i s c a s e d oes, of c o u r s e, i l l u s t r a t e t h a t a n u m b e r of p o s s i b le r e g u l a t o r y m e a s u r e s m a y b e t a k e n w i t h an e f f e c t o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. It a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t an e f f e c t is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n i n d i c a t i o n of p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h e r e g u l a t i o n of l e a s e d l i n e s m a y o b v i o u s l y be u s e d as p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a n s, b u t d o e s n o t - in t h i s c a s e - s e e m to b e u s e d in s u c h a way. I n o u r c o n t e x t, t h e m a i n p o i n t is, h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e B u n d e s p o s t c a s e w a s n o t r e l a t e d t o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n in a n y w a y. It d o e s s t r i c t l y fall o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of o u r d i s c u s s i o n, a n d is m e n t i o n e d o n l y b e c a u s e t h e d i s c u s s i o n at o n e s t a g e p o i n t e d t h i s o u t as an e f f e c t o f t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n of t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c.

64 56 7. C a s e s t u d i e s In o r d e r to s u p p l e m e n t a n d c o m p l e m e n t the s t u d i e s of p r a c t i c e f r o m the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s, the p r o j e c t c o n t a c t e d t h r e e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f e r i n g c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y. T h e c a s e s t u d i e s a r e b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n t h r o u g h i n t e r v i e w s, b u t t h e o p i n i o n s a n d d i s c u s s i o n b e l o w do, o f c o r s e, n o t n e c e s s a r y r e f l e c t the v i e w s h e l d by t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n t a c ted. T h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d by the o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h t e a m (Dag F r o y s t a d a n d A r n s t e i n Ø d e g å r d ), a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n b e l o w is b a s e d on t h e i r e x t e n s i v e n o t e s. T h e t i m e o f the i n t e r v i e w s w e r e

65 D a t e m a D a t e m a is p a r t o f t h e A x e l J o h n s e n g r o u p, w i t h t h e i r h e a d o f f i c e in S w e d e n. It is b e l i e v e d t o b e o n e of t h e l a r g e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x in E u r o p e w i t h a t o t a l of e m p l o y e e s a n d an a n n u a l t u r n o v e r (1981) o f m i l l i o n N O K. T h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h of D a t e m a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in w i t h (1981) 26 e m p l o y e e s a n d a t u r n o v e r of 26 m i l l i o n N O K. T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of s u b s i d i a r i e s a l s o t o the N o r w e g i a n c o m p a n y. D a t e m a s e r v i c e s a n u m b e r o f m a j o r c u s t o m e r s, a m o n g t h e m bank, i n s u r a n c e a n d f i n a n c i a l c o m p a n i e s. O n e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r e d i t c a r d c o m p a n y ( D i n e r ' s C l u b ) is a l s o u s i n g t h e i r s e r v i c e s. A s to t h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 95 p e r c e n t of t h e c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t in S t o c k h o l m. T h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h c h a n n e l s t h e N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s t h r o u g h t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s w i t h S t o c k h o l m. D a t e m a p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of l i c e n s i n g r e g i s t e r s a n d g i v i n g n o t i c e s o n t r a n s n a t i o n a l t r a n s f e r s r e s t s w i t h t h e c u s t o m e r. In p r a c t i c e, h o w e v e r, t h e b u r e a u h a s t o a s s i s t t h e c u s t o m e r. O n e m a y m e n t i o n t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e of D a t e m a w a s c o m m e n t e d u p o n in a l e t t e r f r o m t h e S w e d i s h D a t a I n s e p c t i o n o f M a r c h 2 7th, (Dnr ). In t h i s l e t t e r, it w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r e g i s t e r s e s t a b l i s h e d o n b e h a l f of N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s in S w e d e n a r e s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e u n d e r S w e d i s h law, a n d a s p e c i a l s c h e m e w a s s u g g e s t e d, c o m p r i s i n g

66 58 - i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m D a t e m a to N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s on the l i c e n s e s y s t e m, a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e forms, o n e f o r t h e n o r m a l case, a s e c o n d for t h e c a s e w h e n the d a t a w i l l b e r e e x p o r t e d to N o r w a y for f u r t h e r d a t a p r o c e s s i n g ( w h i c h w i l l r e q u i r e l i c e n s e u n d e r s e c t 11 of the S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n ) - a p p l i c a t i o n b y t h e c u s t o m e r, u s i n g t h e f o r m s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e - D a t e m a c o l l e c t s a n d s e n d t h e f o r m s t o t h e S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n - T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s, l e v y i n g t h e t a r i f f o n D a t e m a - D a t e m a d i s t r i b u t e s the l i c e n s e s w h e n c o n v e n i e n t, a n d i n c l u d e s t h e t a r i f f in t h e i r i n v o i c e t o t h e c u s t o m e r - N e w c u s t o m e r s a r e p r o c e s s e d in t h e s a m e w a y u n d e r r e f e r e n c e to t h i s l e tter. A f t e r t his, D a t e m a r e p o r t s t h a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y r o u t i n e has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d. L i k e o t h e r b u r e a u x, D a t e m a a t t e m p t s to m a i n t a i n a g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e, and h a v e n o n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s. C o m p a r i n g t h e N o r w e g i a n a n d S w e d i s h l e g i s l a t i o n (which are t h o s e t w o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a c t s w h i c h r e g u l a t e s m o r e d e t a i l e d the t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows) s o m e c o m p l i c a t i o n s h a v e b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d. A s to the d i f f e r e n t r e g i s t e r s i n c l u d e d in an a c c o u n t i n g s y s t e m, a d i f f e r e n c e in S w e d i s h a n d N o r w e g i a n p r a c t i c e i m p l i e d t h a t N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s u s i n g D a t e m a ' s s e r v i c e s w o u l d h a v e to a p p l y (and pay) for a l i c e n s e in S w e d e n, w h i l e c u s t o m e r s of c o m p e t i n g N o r w e g i a n b u r e a u x d i d not h a v e to do t h i s d u e to e x e m p t i o n in N o r w e g i a n r e g u l a t o r y law. A h a r m o n i -

67 59 A s to d a t a s e c u r i t y, D a t e m a f o u n d t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s i d e n t i c a l w i t h that of t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s, a n d r e p o r t e d a l s o that c u s t o m e r s w e r e b e c o m i n g m o r e " s e c u r i t y c o n s c i o u s ". T h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s w e r e n o t p r i m a r i l y m o t i v a t e d b y d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t r a t h e r b y l o n g t e r m c o m p a n y p o l i cy. D a t e m a a l s o r e p o r t e d n o i m p a c t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o n the t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. O n e had, h o w e v e r, c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g d o m e s t i c s u b s i d a r i e s if r e s t r i c t i o n s w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d. A s to the N o r w e g i a n m a r k e t, D a t e m a w a s m o r e c r i t i c a l to t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m b u r e a u x s p o n s o r e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t or l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s.

68 G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c T h e G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e A / S is a N o r w e g i a n c o m p a n y f u l l y o w n e d by the US c o r p o r a t i o n. U n t i l 1976, the s e r v i c e w a s t e r m e d M a r k III, but is c u r r e n t l y (1982) m a r k e t e d u n d e r t h e t r a d e n a m e G E I S. T h e G E I S o f f e r s all t y p e s of c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. D u e to t h e i r w e l l d e v e l o p e d n e t w o r k s e r v i c e s, t h e G E I S is e s p e c i a l l y o r i - t e n t e d t o w a r d s c u s t o m e r s w i t h g e o g r a p h i c a l l y w i d e s p r e a d a c t i v i t i e s. A s t o t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, n o s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s h a v e a r i s e d, n e i t h e r w i t h r e s p e c t to the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s n o r t o d a t a s u b j e c t s. T h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h r e p o r t s t h a t no d a t a s u b j e c t h a s r e q u i r e d a c c e s s to t h e i r o w n f i l e s h e l d b y t h e G E I S. G E I S d o e s, h o w e v e r, k e e p a c l o s e e y e on n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s. W h e n t h e N o r w e g i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d, a s t a n d a r d l e t t e r w a s m a i l e d to all c u s t o m e r s on t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e n e w act. S e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a r e n o t i m p l e m e n t e d to c o m p l y w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t to be in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h c o m p a n y p o l i c y. N o t r a d e b a r r i e r s w e r e s e e n in the c u r r e n t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t G E I S h a d e x p e r i e n c e d p r o b l e m s w i t h r e s p e c t to t a x e s a n d c u s t o m s o n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s.

69 IB M I n t e r v i e w s w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of I B M d i s c l o s e d s o m e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o n t h e i r i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l r e g i s t e r s. E a r l i e r IBM h a d a c e n t r a l r e g i s t e r a l s o in P a r i s, b u t a f t e r t h e S i e m e n s c ase, t h i s w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d. T h e r e m a y be an i n d i c a t i o n of m u l t i n a t i o n a l s t a k i n g t h e s i g n a l s of p r e c e d e n t s a n d d i c o n t i n u i n g an a c t i v i t y w h i c h t h e y f o r e s e e w i l l n o t m e e t t h e a p p r o v a l of data p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s. T h i s a d v e r s e e f f e c t w o u l d t h e n be i n v i s i b l e f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a g e n c i e s. In t h e S i e m e n s c a s e I B M h a s o b v i o u s l y r e a l i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of t r a d e u n i o n s. I B M is c l e a r l y c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n i s s u e s, b u t r e p o r t s n o p r o b l e m s in i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. It has c r e a t e d a c e r t a i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o v e r h e a d, a n d a r e v i e w of i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y h a s t a k e n a n e s t i m a t e d t o t a l of 6 m a n m o n t h s, ie a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 h o u r s p r e a c h o f the r e g i s t e r s in q u e s t i o n. O n e c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e w a s c i t e d f r o m A u s t r i a, w h i c h h a s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n in its d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. O n e x p o r t, t h e I B M h e a d q u a r t e r h a d t o d e c l a r e t h a t the d a t a w o u l d be r e t u r n e d to A u s t r i a if t h e n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n w a s i m p a i r e d. T h e m a j o r c o n c e r n of I B M w o u l d s e e m to be t h e e x t e n t i o n of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n to t h e i s s u e o f l e g a l p e r s o n s, w h e r e the p r i n c i p l e o f a c c e s s to o n e ' s o w n f i l e w o u l d s e e m t o b e r a t h e r p r o b l e m a t i c. In c o n c l u s i o n, I B M w o u l d s e e m to m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e d a t a p r o

70 62 t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n has h a d a m i n o r i m p a c t, a n d n o t at a'. 1 on t h e t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s.

71 63 L i t e r a t u r e A r s b e r e t n i n q 1980 (1981) R e g i s t e r t i l s y n e t, C o p e n h a g e n. B ing, J o n (1980) " T r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s a n d t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n " ; S c a n d i n a v i a n S t u d i e s in L a w B ull, H a n s - P e t e r (1981) " R e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a flow u n d e r G e r m a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n act"; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1 / B u r t e n, W a r r e n E (1980) ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1/22 E y e i o n s, D o u g (1980) " T h e f l o w of d a t a a n d the c o s t of f r e e dom"; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1/5. F r e e m a n, H a r r y (1980) ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1/11 N a c a m u l i, A l e x a n d e r I (1980) " S W I F T : O b j e c t i v e s, s t a n d a r d i z a tion, a v a i l a b i l i t y, a u d i t a b i l i t y, s e c u r i t y, p r i v a c y a n d l i a b i l i t y " ; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 6 / O n s t a d, P h i l i p C (1980) ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1 / R e p o r t (1978) o f t h e C o m m i t t e e on D a t a P r o t e c t i o n ; H MSO, L o n d o n S e i p, H e l g e (1981) " U n f a i r c o m p e t i t i o n in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s " ; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 8 / 3 3 S O U : 5 4 P e r s o n r e q i s t e r - d a t o r e r - i n t e g r i t e t ; D ALK, S t o c k h o l m T u r n, R e i n (1981) T r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s (vol 1-2); A f i p s, W a s h i n g t o n V e k e m a n, L u c (1980) " S W I F T i n t e r b a n k t r a n s a c t i o n n e t w o r k e x p a n d s to 27 c o u n t r i e s " ; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 6/7 W a l k e r,r o b e r t EL ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1 /

72

73 T i d l i g e r e u t g i t t 1 s k r i f t s e r i e n C o m p L e x C o m p L e x 1 /Sl Jolis H a n s e n ist S D B - s y s t e m l o r a n a l y s e av r e t t s l i g e a v g j u r e l s e r C o m p L e x 2/81 J o h s H a n s e n (red) K o t a t e r om d e o n t i s k e s y s t e m e r C o m p L e x 3 / Q 1 V i d a r S o r e n s e n I n f o r m a s j o n s s y s t e m mm f o r N o r g e s G e o t e k n i s k e I n s t i t u t t C o m p L e x 4 /ti 1 K j e t i l J o h n s e n S y s t e m t e k n i s k e K o n s e k v e n s e r ev p e r s o n d a t a l o v g i v n i n g e n C o m p L e x 6/81 / iarit T h o r v a l d s e n T e l e d a t a o g r e t t s i n f o r m a s j o n C o m p L e x 6/81 An n e K i r s t i Bruäkke P o s t m o n o p o l e t C o m p L e x 7/81 K n u t S S e l m e r (ed) The L A W D A T A P a p e r s C o m p L e x 1 /82 N o r s k f o r e n i n g for j u s o g e d b Ce. S v e n s k a foereningeri 1'oer a a b och j u r i d i k N o r d i s k e p e r s o n r e g i s t e r l o v e r, C o u n c i l of E u r o p e C o n v e n t i o n and O E C D g u i d e l i n e s C o m p L e x 2 / 8 2 H a r a l d Brtand o g V i d a r S ø r e n s e n O l j e v e r n : B r u K e r b e h o v o g k i l d e m a t e r i a l e C o m p L e x 3 / 8 2 J o n E i n g o g D a g f r o y t a d R e t t s k i l d e b r u k C o m p L e x 4 / 8 2 T h o m a s P r e b e n s e n S t e e n P o s t - o g t e l e v e r k e t s r e g u l e r t e a n s v a r C o m p L e x 5 / 8 2 D a t a t i l s y n e t. r s m e l d i n g iyb1

74 CompLex 6/82 Birger Eckhoff i s a m a r b e i d m e d J o n B ing, D u g K r ø y s t a d o g A n j a O s k a m p CATT3: Computerized program for teaching text retrieval systems C o m p L e x 7 / 8 2 J o n B i n g Info r m a s j o n s s y s t e m e r f o r T r y g d e r e t t e n s k j e n n e l s e r C o m p L e x 8 / 8 2 d e H u l d e r, O s K a m p, van d e r lleyden o g G u b b y S e n t e n c i n g b y c o m p u t e r : An e x p e r i m e n t C o o p L e x y / 8 2 C o l i n T a p p e r A n e x p e r i m e n t in the u s e o f c i t a t i o n v e c t o r s in the a r e a of l e g a l d a t a CompLex 1/83 Arve Køyen Utredning om endringer i personregisterloven C o m p L e x 2 / 8 3 S t e i n S c h j ø l b e r g Computers and penal legislation CompLex 3/83 John S Gulbrandsen og Terje Hoffmann Rettigheter i idrettsarrangementer C o m p L e x 4 / 8 3 S a l l y M o o n a n d A n j a O s k a m p The Law of Legal Information Systems: Two essays CompLex 5/83 Datatilsynet Årsmelding 1982 CompLex 6/83 Olav Torvund Betalingsformidling CompLex 7/83 Else Ryen Lov og lovmottaker CompLex 6/83 Daniel Stripinis Probability theory and circumstantial evidence CompLex 9/83 Frede Cappelen Edb/basert informaljonasysten for forvaltningens praksis C o m p L e x 1 0 / 8 3 I-iOHDI P RO Le/;al a c c e p t a n c e ot' i nt.r rruihnr..,! tr..iu. i«.*

75 C o m p L e x 1 1 / 8 3 J o r d e n H a f s t a d o g "'horaas P r e b e n s e n S t e e n T e l e k a r e t t o g m e r v e r d i a v g i f t p;1 p r o g r a m v a r e C o m p L e x 1 2 / 6 3 K r i s t i n K j e l l a n d - f i ø r d r e O m f o r e n k l i n g av r e g l e r C o m p L e x 1 3 / 8 3 J o n B i n g Edb: M u l i g h e t e r o g p r o b l e m ved f o r e n k l i n g av r e g e l v e r n CorapLex 1 4 / 8 3 T a r j e i S t e n s a a s e n (red) U t v a l g t e e m n e r i j u s o g e d b (3- utg) C o m p L e x 1 5 / 8 3 A n e t t e K l a f 3 t a d o g U l f Alex. S a m e r Plan for et f o r a i k r i n g s r e t t s l i g i n f o r m a a j o n s s y s t e m C o m p L e x 1 / 6 4 Jon E r l i n g 3 k j ø r s n a m m e r K a b e l n e t t : B y g n i n g 3 - o g e k s p r o p r i r i s j o n a l o v C o m p L e x 2 / 8 4 T o r e A n d r e a s H a u g l i e o g D a g W i e s e o c h a r t u m F o r a l a g til et h e l a e r e t t s l i g inforoias j o n s a y a t e m C o m p L e x 3 / 8 4 J u a t i a d e p a r t e m e n t e t D e n e l e k t r o n i a k e g r u n n b o k C o m p L e x 4 / 8 4 D a t a t i l a y n e t Æ r s m e l d i n g 1983 C o m p L e x 5 / 8 4 T o v e F j e l d v i g T e k s t o ø k i n g : T e o r i, m e t o d e r o g s y s t e m e r C o m p L e x 6 / 8 4 J o n B i n g O f f e n t l i g h e t s l o v e n og edb C o m p L e x 7 / 8 4 G u n n a r B a c h, B e a t e J a c o b s e n and V i d a r S t e n s l a n J T h e N a t i o n a l Social. I n s u r a n c e S y s t e m of N o r w a y C o m p L e x 8 / 8 4 D a g F r ø y s t a d D a t a P r o t e c t i i o n in P r a c t i c e I I d e n t i f y i n g and H a t c h i n g E l e m e n t s C o m p L e x 9 / 8 4 T o v o F j e l d v i g o g A n n e G o l d e n A u t o m a t i s k r o t l e m m a t i s e r i n g - et l i n g v i s t i s k njelpomidtlel tekstsakir.g for

76 C o m p L e x 1 0 / ä 4 E l l i n g ü y c h a u g Ose R e t s t l d e n d e soia i n f o r m a s j o n s s y s t e m

77 DSA - n ett verksarkitektu r for fremtiden Honeywell Bull Tollbugt 32 - O slo 1 Tit (02) Avd kontor Sandnes - Bergen Ålesund - Trondheim Harstad Tromso

78 Norsk Data ISBN

ARC 202L. Not e s : I n s t r u c t o r s : D e J a r n e t t, L i n, O r t e n b e r g, P a n g, P r i t c h a r d - S c h m i t z b e r g e r

ARC 202L. Not e s : I n s t r u c t o r s : D e J a r n e t t, L i n, O r t e n b e r g, P a n g, P r i t c h a r d - S c h m i t z b e r g e r ARC 202L C A L I F O R N I A S T A T E P O L Y T E C H N I C U N I V E R S I T Y D E P A R T M E N T O F A R C H I T E C T U R E A R C 2 0 2 L - A R C H I T E C T U R A L S T U D I O W I N T E R Q U A

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