Depositional Sedimentary Environments

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1 H.-E. Reineck I. B. Singh Depositional Sedimentary Environments With Reference to Terrigenous Clastics Second, Revisedjind Updated Edition With 683 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1980,

2 Contents Part I. Primary Structures and Textures Introduction 3 Depositional Environments 5 Physical Parameters 8 General Information 8 Primary Sedimentary Structures 8 Sediment Grain Movement 9 Mode of Sediment Transport 11 Hydrodynamic Factors and Bedforms in Water 12 Flow Regime 12 Lower Flow Regime.... / 12 Transition Regime 12 Upper Flow Regime 13 Bedforms 13 Plane Bed Without Movement 13 Small Ripples 14 Megaripples 14 Plane Bed with Sediment Movement 15 Antidunes 15 Chutes and Pools 16 "SandWaves" 16 Megaripples and Sand Waves 17 Study of Bedload Transport 17 Rate of Migration of Bedforms 18 Bedforms, Stream Power, and Water Depth 18 Depth-Velocity-Size Diagram 20 Current and Wave Ripples 22 General Information 22 Description of Ripple Marks 22 Internal Structure of a Ripple 23 Pattern of Flow over a Lee Face of a Small Ripple, amegaripple,and"microdeltas" 25 Zone of No Diffusion 26 Zone of Mixing 26 Zone of Backflow 26 Development of Lamination in the Lee Face 27 Variables Controlling the Shape and Slope of Foreset Laminae 29 Causes for the Production of Foreset Laminae of Varying Composition, 29

3 XII Contents Sediment Movement in Symmetrical Wave Ripples 30 Sediment Movement in Asymmetrical Wave Ripples 31 Wave Ripples 32 Symmetrical Wave Ripples 32 Asymmetrical Wave Ripples 33 Current Ripples 36 Small-Current Ripples 36 Megaripples 40 Giant Ripples 44 Antidunes 47 Combined Current/Wave Ripples 48 Longitudinal Combined Current/Wave Ripples 48 Transverse Combined Current/Wave Ripples 48 Isolated Ripples 49 WindRipples 49 Movement of Sand in a Wind Regime 49 Wind Sand Ripples 50 Wind Granule Ripples 51 Tables for the Identification of Ripples 52 Distribution of Ripples in Various Depositional Environments. 52 Surface Markings and Imprints 56 Mud and Sand Volcanoes and Other Similar Features 56 ClasticDykes 58 MudCracks 59 Frost and Ice Cracks 60 Raindrop Imprints 61 Foam Impressions 62 Crystal Imprints and Casts 63 Water Level Marks 64 Primary Current Lineation 64 Wrinkle Marks 65 Millimeter Ripples 65 Antiripplets (Adhesion Ripples) 65 Bubble Sand Structure and Other Bubble Cavities 66 Swash Marks 67 RillMarks 68 Scour-and-Fill Structures 71 Channels 71 Scour Marks 73 Flute Marks 73 Transverse Scour Marks 74 Flute Rill Marks 75 Longitudinal Furrows and Ridges 75 Triangular Marks Tapering Down-Current 76 Pillow-like Scour Marks 76 Harrow Marks 77 Setulfs Tool Marks 78 Stationary Tool Marks 78 Obstacle Marks 78 Moving Tool Marks 79

4 Contents XIII Groove Marks 80 Chevron Marks 81 ProdMarks 81 Bounce Marks 82 BrushMarks 82 Skip and Roll Marks 82 Penecontemporaneous Deformation Structures 84 Load Structures 84 Ball-and-Pillow Structure 86 Convolute Bedding 87 Dish Structures 89 Slump Structures 90 Water-Escape Structures 93 Bedding 95 General Information 95 Cross-bedding 97 Small-ripple Bedding 101 Megaripple Bedding 102 Wave-ripple Bedding 103 Longitudinal Cross-bedding 104 Channel-fill Cross-bedding 105 Antidune Cross-bedding 106 Microdelta Cross-bedding 106 Beach and Longshore Bar Cross-bedding 107 Sand Dune Cross-bedding 107 Sand-Drift Cross-bedding 108 Scour-and-Fill Cross-bedding 109 Low-Angle Cross-bedding in Fluvial Sediments 109 Planar Cross-bedding of Fluvial Bars 109 Backset Bedding 109 Climbing-ripple Lamination 109 Flaser and Lenticular Bedding. 112 Ripple Bedding with Flasers. 113 Flaser Bedding 113 Wavy Bedding 114 Lenticular Bedding 114 Graded Bedding 118 Evenly Laminated Sand and Horizontal Bedding 120 Coarsely Interlayered Bedding Thinly Interlayered Bedding (Rhythmites) 123 Thinly Laminated Mud.130 Homogeneous Bedding 130 Thin Sand Layers 130 Sediment Grain Parameters 132 General Information 132 GrainSize Grain-Size Distribution Suspension Transport 135 Saltation Transport 136 Rolling Transport 136 Shape and Roundness of Sediment Grains Shape and Roundness of Gravel 138 Shape and Roundness of Sand 141

5 XIV Contents Surface Texture of Sediment Grains 142 Primary Fabric or Grain Orientation 145 Orientation of Pebbles 145 Orientation of Sand Grains 147 Orientation of Clay Particles 148 Orientation of O/ganic Remains 148 Chemical and Mineralogical Parameters 150 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) 150 Acidicity-Alkalinity 150 Salinity 150 Temperature 151 Index Minerals 151 Color 152 Trace Elements 152 Biological Parameters 154 General Information 154 Hard Skeletal Parts 154 Bioturbation Structures 158 Surface Lebensspuren 161 Internal Lebensspuren 162 Dwelling Structures 162 Characterizing of Environments by Lebensspuren 165 FecalPellets 171 Environmental Reconstructions 175 Part. II. Modern Environments Introduction 179 General Information 179 Importance of Sequence in Environmental Reconstruction Glacial Environment 185 General Information 185 Geomorphology of Glaciers 185 GlacialFlow 188 Glacial Erosion 188 Glacial Transport 190 Glacial Deposit 192 Eskers 193 Kames 196 Small-Delta Deposits 197 Glacial Lake Deposits 201 Sandur Deposits 202 Interglacial Deposits 205 Evidences of Glacial Activity 206 Grain Size Characteristics of Glacial Deposits 206 Wind Activity in Outwash Plains 208 Ancient Sediments of Glacial Environments 208 Desert Environment 209 General Information 209

6 Contents XV Erosion and Sedimentation Processes in the Desert 210 Deposits of Desert Environments 212 Hamada Deposits 213 Serir Deposits 214 Desert Lake and Inland Sebkha Deposits 215 Wadi Deposits 217 Aeolian Sand Deposits 219 Sand Drifts and Sand Shadows 221 Gozes 221 Sand Sheets 221 Sand Dunes 222 Internal Structure of Sand Dunes 222 Sand Dune Types 228 Interdune Areas 236 Dust or Loess Deposits 237 Grain-size Characteristics of Aeolian Sand Deposits 238 Identification of the Desert Environment in Ancient Sediments. 239 Wind-deposited Sands 239 Water-deposited Sediments 240 Criterion for the Recognition of Subaerial Exposure of Water-laid Sediments 240 Ancient Deposits of the Desert Environments 240 Lake Environment 241 General Information 241 Clastic Lake Deposits 241 Lake Geneva 243 Lake Constance 245 Rhine River Delta in Lake Constance 247 Distribution of Sedimentary Structures in the Delta Body Central Basin Plain and Lateral Slope of Lake Constance Lake Thun, Lake Brienz, and Walensee \ 251 The Life in the Lakes 253 Chemical Precipitates in Lakes 253 Examples of Ancient Lake Deposits 254 Summary 255 Fluvial Environment 257 General Information 257 Channel Pattern 258 Straight Channels..259 Braided Channels 260 Meandering Channels 260 Fluvial Bars, 262 Compound Bar-Like Features (Channel Bars) 264 Form of a Channel and Fluvial Processes 264 Fluvial Environments and Their Deposits 265 Channel Lag Deposits 266 Point Bar Deposits 267 Fine-Grained Point Bar Deposits 269 Coarse-Grained Point Bar Deposits 274 Channel Bar and Braided River Deposits 280 Gravelly Braid Bar Deposits 280

7 XVI Contents General Characteristics of Gravelly Braided Stream Deposits 282 Development of Sequence 284 Fine-Grained Braid Bar Deposits 284 Deposits of Suspended Load Rivers 288 Natural Levee Deposits 289 Crevasse-Splay Deposits 291 Channel-fill Deposits (Cut-off Channels and Lakes) 292 Flood Basin Deposits 295 Flood Plain Deposits 298 Alluvial Fan Deposits 298 Debris-Flow Deposits 301 Water-Laid Deposits 302 Distribution of Fades in a Fan 303 Humid Alluvial Fans 304 Fluvial Associations 305 Alluvial Fan Association 305 Flood Plain Association 306 Coastal Plain-Delta Association 306 Some General Remarks 306 Ephemeral Stream Deposits 310 Role of Aeolian Sediments in Fluvial Deposits 311 Grain-size Characteristics of Fluvial Sediments 311 Ancient Fluvial Deposits 312 Estuarine Environment 315 General Information 315 Classification and Hydrography of Estuaries 315 Sedimentation and Bioturbation 315 Fjords 319 Summary 319 Deltaic Environment 321 General Information 321 The Structure of a Delta 322 SubenvironmentsofaDelta 323 SubenvironmentsofSubaerialTopset Deposits 324 Subaqueous Topset Deposits and Their Environments Deltaic Sand Bodies 328 Prodelta Environment 333 Shelf-mud Environment (Delta Bottomset) 334 Development of Repetitive Lateral and Vertical Sequences in a Delta System 334 Examples of Ancient Deposits of the Delta Environment Summary 337 TheCoast 339 Introduction 339 The Coast: Definition and Classification 339 Coastal Sand 340 Geomorphology of Coastal Sand (Beach) 345 Beach Dynamics and Sediment Transport 347 Coastal Sand Dunes 350 Beach Ridges and Cheniers 352 Beach Ridges of the Coast of Nayarit, Mexico 355 Chenier Plain of Southwestern Louisiana 356

8 Contents XVII WashoverFans 359 Backshore 360 Foreshore 363 Shoreface 368 Vertical Sequences of Coastal Sand 370 TheShelf 371 Hydrodynamic Conditions on the Continental Shelf 371 Transition Zone 373 Shelf Sediments 374 Sand Deposits on the Continental Shelf 377 Sand Ribbons 377 Comet Marks and Sand Shadows 378 Giant Ripples 378 Tidal Current Ridges 378 Examples of Ancient Sand Deposits of the Shelf 381 Examples of Beach-Shelf Profiles from Modern Environments Introduction 382 Beach Sand-Shelf Mud Profile, Gulf of Gaeta, Mediterranean Sea,Italy 382 Channels and Sand Bars (Shoals) - Channels and Sand Tongues, NorthSea 386 The Channels and Sand Bars (Shoals) of the Outer Jade, NorthSea 386 Sand Tongues (Shoals) and Channels in the Region of Nordergriinde, North Sea 388 Tidal Inlets and Tidal Deltas 392 Profile of the Busum: Coastal Sand - Transition Zone - Shelf Mud with Storm Sand Layers 394 Coastal Sand 394 Transition Zone 394 Shelf Mud with Storm Sand Layers 395 Profiles of the Two East Frisian Barrier Islands, Norderney Island and Wangerooge Island, North Sea 397 Galveston Island (Gulf of Mexico, U.S.A.) 398 Beach Profile ofa High-energy Coast, Oregon, U.S. A 400 A "High-Energy" Beach-to-Offshore Sequence, California, U.S.A 404 Beach-Shelf Profile, Sapelo Island, Georgia, U.S.A 405 Introduction 405 Distribution of Sedimentary Structures 406 Distribution of Fauna 408 Distribution of Trace Fossils 409 Summary, 409 Beach-to-Offshore Profile on Gravelly Coasts, Costa Brava, Spain 410 Coastal Upwelling 412 Glacial Marine Sediments 413 Mineral Deposits on the Shelf 415 Examples of Ancient Coastal Sand and Shelf Sediments 415 Remarks 422 Coastal Lagoons 424 General Information 424 Distribution of Sediment and Sedimentary Structures 425 Example ofa Modern Coastal Lagoon.425

9 XVIII Contents BarrierBeach 426 Barrier and Sand Bar 426 Tidal Delta and Algal-bound Sand Flats 427 TidalChannels 427 Lagoonal Bottom (Subtidal Pond) 427 Gullies (Tidal Creeks) 427 Intertidal Zone 427 Barren Zone 428 Marsh 428 SaltPans 428 Examples of Ancient Lagoonal Sediments 428 Summary 428 Tidal Flats 430 General Information 430 Physiography and Morphology 431 Type of Bedding in Tidal Flat Sediments 432 Bioturbation and Fauna 434 TidalChannels 434 Surface Structures 440 Drift Ice Action 443 Horizontal and Vertical Sequences of Tidal Flat Deposits and Intertidal Sandbars 443 The Tidal Flats of Saint-Michel 445 Wind Tidal Flats 445 Tidal Flats of Taiwan 445 The Saltmarsh 447 Freshwater Tidal Flats 448 Intertidal Sandbars 452 Diagnostic Features of Tidal Flat Deposits 454 Ancient Tidal Flat Deposits 455 Continental Margin, Slope and Ocean Basin I. 457 General Information 457 Major Units of Continental Margins 457 Tectonic or Erosional Type of Continental Margin 459 Depositional Continental Margins 459 Submarine Canyons and Fan Valleys 462 Transport System in the Continental Shelf, Margin and Ocean Basins 463 Fluvial Mixed Transport and Separation of Sand and Lutum (Mud) 465 High-density, High-velocity Turbidity Currents and Turbidite Deposits 466 Transport and Deposition of Sand 469 Tansport and Deposition of Sand-Debris Flow and Pebbly Mudstone Deposits 471 Deposition in Submarine Canyons and Deep-Sea Fan Regions. 472 Examples of Ancient Deep-Sea Fan and Fan Valley Deposits..477 Low-velocity, Low-density Turbidity Currents 479 Contour Currents and Contourites 482 Large-scale Gravity Slide and Slump Deposits 485 Deep-Sea Sediments: Recent and Ancient 486 Brown Clay (Red Clay) 488 GlobigerinaOoze 488

10 Contents XIX Radiolarian Ooze 488 DiatomOoze 488 PteropodOoze 488 Diagenetic (Hydrogenous) Deposits 488 Manganese Nodules 488 Terrigenous Deposits 488 Current Markings and Related Sedimentary Structures in the Deep-Sea Sediments 489 Bedding and Bioturbation Structures in the Bottom. Samples of Deep-Sea Sediments of the East African Coast 491 Distribution of Sediments 491 Red Deep-Sea Clay 492 Globigerina Ooze 493 Foraminiferal Sand 496 Olive-gray Mud 496 Biogenic Carbonate Sand 496 Continental Slope, Rise and Abyssal Plain of the Gulf of Mexico 496 General Information 496 Sedimentary Structures in the Sediments of the Gulf of Mexico 497 Distribution of Sedimentary Structures over Physiographic Provinces 498 Sedimentation in the Deeper Parts of the Adjacent Seas 499 Concluding Remarks 503 References 505 Subject Index 543

Depositional Sedimentary Environments

H.-E. Reineck I. B. Singh Depositional Sedimentary Environments With Reference to Terrigenous Clastics Second, Revised and Updated Edition Corrected Second Printing With 683 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin