Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam; * Correspondence: Tel.

Transcription

1 geosciences Article Application Seismic Attributes Wheeler Transformations for Geomorphological Interpretation Stratigraphic Surfaces: A Case Study F3 Block, Dutch Offshore Sector, North Sea Mohammad Afifi Ishak 1, Md. Aminul Islam 1, *, Mohamed Ragab Shalaby 1 Nurul Hasan 2 1 Department Physical Geological Sciences, Faculty Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam; hj.afifi@gmail.com (M.A.I.); ragab.shalaby@ubd.edu.bn (M.R.S.) 2 Department Petroleum Chemical Engineering, Faculty Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam; nurul.hasan@utb.edu.bn * Correspondence: aminul.islam@ubd.edu.bn; Tel.: Received: 25 December 2017; Accepted: 21 February 2018; Published: 26 February 2018 Abstract: This study was carried out in Pliocene interval sourn North Sea F3 Block in Nerls. This research paper demonstrates how an integrated interpretation geological information using attributes, sequence stratigraphic interpretation Wheeler transformation methods allow for accurate interpretation depositional environment a basin, as well as locating geomorphological features. methodology adopted here is to generate a 3D dip-steered HorizonCube followed by chronostratigraphic analysis, 3D Wheeler transformation, system tract interpretation. A dip-steered attribute (similarity, dip, curvature) was performed on each stratigraphic surface interest isopach maps were generated for each stratigraphic surface to help identify maximum deposition. results this study show that similarity attribute is able to identify distinct stratigraphic features such as s-waves deep marine meering channels. However, its lateral continuity is poorly understood, as similarity attribute does not take into account true geological dip curvature surfaces. Structural features such as faults are not easily recognizable due to se reasons. However, dip-apparent attributes are found to be very useful in identifying both structural stratigraphic features. dip map is n improved by rotating dip measurements to user-defined azimuths. Such optimization has revealed structural stratigraphic features that are not clearly evident on similarity curvature attributes. maximum curvature attribute is found to be useful in delineating faults predicting orientation distribution fractures also in subtle structural features. Keywords: similarity; curvature; dip-azimuth; attribute analysis; wheeler transformation 1. Introduction Seismic attributes provide geophysicists interpreters with useful information related to amplitude, position, shape a waveform compared to conventional or more traditional ways interpreting stratigraphy. It fully utilizes use amplitudes 3D to map visualize subsurface stratigraphy geomorphology, geological structures, reservoir architecture [1]. Sheriff [2] classified attributes such as a measurement based on data such as envelope, instantaneous phase frequency, polarity, dip, dip azimuth. Taner [3] defined attributes as information obtained eir by direct measurement data or by logical/experience-based reasoning. Seismic attributes form an integral part Geosciences 2018, 8, 79; doi: /geosciences

2 Geosciences 2018, 8, qualitative interpretative tool that facilitates structural stratigraphic interpretation. It also fers clues to lithology type fluid content estimation with a potential benefit detailed reservoir characterization [4]. rapid advancement 3D data made in-depth analysis high-resolution visualization subsurface possible in a manner resembling surface geomorphology. Seismic geomorphology interpretation is a primary method for mapping viewing subsurface features as well as aiding interpretation structures stratigraphy, especially in areas away from well control [5]. Understing sequence stratigraphy is crucial for better reconstruction depositional system also in identifying new hydrocarbon plays. Sequence stratigraphy refers to a sequence geological events, processes, or rocks arranged in chronological order [6] this discipline is still controversial has generated long arguments among researchers geoscientist attempting to define conceptual basis its technique. Recent stware developments, particularly through open-source stware such as OpendTect, have enabled researchers to study time attributes stratigraphic surfaces within chronostratigraphic framework by using 3D Wheeler Transformation [7,8] recently 4D Wheeler Transformation [9]. Through 3D Wheeler Transformation, data, as well as attribute volumes, are flattened in 3D space [7] along auto-tracked horizons while at same time honoring erosional events non-depositional hiatuses [10]. Recently, a fourth dimension was introduced [11] which integrated stratigraphic thickness per stratigraphic unit into 4D Wheeler diagram. A comprehensive historical review Wheeler diagram has been documented by Qayyum Catuneanu [12]. role Wheeler Transformation when integrating it with attributes has proven to be a powerful tool in interpretation identifying geological features. By combining se two methods instead using it as a st-alone tool, it has helped researchers to better underst numerous things as demonstrated in previous studies done in Nerl Offshore F3 Block ( 1) such as porosity prediction [13], fracture fault characterization [14], structural interpretation [1,15], turbidites characterization [16]. However, application Wheeler Transformation using attributes to identify geomorphological changes to reconstruct depositional history has been given little to no attention to date. refore, goals objectives this paper are to identify geomorphological changes stratigraphic surfaces by integrating Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation System (SSIS) with Wheeler Transformation methods attribute analysis, particularly focusing on minimum similarity, maximum curvature, dip attributes. surfaces interest are MFS1, BSFR1, CC/SU1 (depositional sequence 1), MRS1 (depositional sequence 2). A much more detailed interpretation was done by Qayyum et al. [17]. Although interval studied does not have any direct relevance for hydrocarbon exploration, study can be used as an analog in similar geological environments that have potential for valid hydrocarbon plays. 2. Regional Geological Setting 2.1. Tectonic Framework development Eridanos delta system is a result simultaneous episodes uplift Fennoscian Shield subsidence North Sea Basin [18] (see 2). It is believed that uplift Fennoscian Shield started during Oligocene. uplift rate increased during late Miocene [19] furr uplift activity in early Pliocene has also been suggested by or researchers [20,21]. Previous studies [19,22 24] suggested that a total uplift amounting to 3000 m occurred in central part dome in norrn Norway about m more to south. hinge zone, which is along western Scinavian margin, was relatively narrow a 600 m differential uplift occurred over a distance less than 100 km [25 27]. Eridanos deltaic system started during Oligocene period while Scinavian Shield was being uplifted, resulting in development a siliciclastic delta system [18]. High sedimentation influx filled norrn North Sea region Dutch sector as a result late Miocene uplift [28]. increasing sediment load

3 Geosciences 2018, 8, x 79FOR PEER REVIEW 3 21 sediment load resulted in a differential load throughout region which caused underlying resulted in a differential load throughout region which caused underlying Permian Zechstein Permian Zechstein salt to start moving several localized unconformities underlain by salt domes salt to start moving several localized unconformities underlain by salt domes were formed within were formed within Pliocene interval [29]. se unconformities were ten sub-aerially exposed in Pliocene sourn interval North [29]. Sea se causing unconformities topset beds were ten some sub-aerially clinorms exposed to be vulnerable in sourn to erosional North Sea activity. causing topset beds some clinorms to be vulnerable to erosional activity. Cenozoic Cenozoic succession succession Eridanos Eridanos fluvio-deltaic fluvio-deltaic system system can can be be subdivided subdivided into into two two main main packages: packages: Lower Lower Upper Upper packages packages separated separated by by a major major unconformity unconformity called called Mid-Miocene Mid-Miocene Unconformity Unconformity [30]. [30]. Lower Lower package package mainly mainly comprises comprises relatively relatively fine-grained fine-grained gradational gradational Paleogene Paleogene sediments. sediments. Upper Upper package package mainly mainly comprises comprises a coarse-grained coarse-grained Neogene Neogene sediment sediment most most it it is is part part a progradational progradational deltaic deltaic sequence sequence that that could could be be furr furr subdivided subdivided into into three three units units corresponding corresponding to to three three phases phases delta delta evolution evolution shown shown as Unit as Unit 1, 2, 1, 2, 3 on 3 on age age downlap downlap onto onto MMU MMU becomes becomes gradually gradually younger younger towards towards central central part part North North Sea. Sea. estimated estimated ages are ages believed are believed to be 12.4 to be Ma 12.4 in Ma Danish in Danish sector [31,32], sector [31,32], 10.7 Ma 10.7 in Ma German in sector German [33]. sector [33]. downdip downdip prograding prograding units are overlain units are by overlain thick distinctive by thick distinctive units between units 100 between m m which 300 represent m which represent delta-top facies delta-top [28]. facies dominant [28]. direction dominant direction progradation progradation is towards is west-southwest towards west-southwest direction [34]. direction progradation [34]. progradation configuration configuration is expressed as is sigmoidal expressed lineaments as sigmoidal or clinorms lineaments in or clinorms dip section in [34]. dip section 4 shows [34]. regional 4 cross-section shows regional structural cross-section framework structural North framework Sea region. North Sea region. 1. location map F3 block, study area (rectangle is indicated by arrow). It is located 1. location map F3 block, study area (rectangle is indicated by arrow). It is located in in Dutch Dutch sector sector North North Sea. Sea. After After Remmelts Remmelts [35]. [35].

4 Geosciences 2018, 8, Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW Eridanos fluvio-deltaic system North-West North-West European European Basin [36 39]. [36 39] Eridanos Eridanos fluvio-deltaic fluvio-deltaic system system North-West European Basin Basin [36 39]. A A B B 3. (A) schematic diagram Neogene Eridanos fluvio-deltaic system North Sea 3. (A) schematic diagram Neogene Eridanos fluvio-deltaic system North Sea (A)corresponding schematic diagramprile (inline Neogene Eridanos fluvio-deltaic system North (B)3.its 425). Eridanos delta can be divided into Sea (B) its corresponding prile (inline 425). Eridanos delta can be divided into (B) its corresponding 425). Eridanos delta can Upper Lower packages. prile Upper (inline package can be furr divided intobe3 divided sub-unitinto [30]. Upper Upper Lower packages. Upper package can be furr into 3 sub-unit Lower packages. Upper package can be furr divideddivided into 3 sub-unit [30]. [30] Stratigraphy North Sea Basin 2.2. Stratigraphy North Sea Basin 2.2. Stratigraphy North Sea Basin Nerls is predominantly known as a gas producing country with majority its Nerls is predominantly known as a gas producing country with majority its onshore fshore is gaspredominantly fields coming known from coalcountry source with rock ( 1). Nerls as Carboniferous a gas producing majority onshore fshore gas fields coming from Carboniferous coal source rock ( 1). sstones fshore Lower gas Permian formation forms excellent sealed by its onshore fieldsrotliegend coming from Carboniferous coalreservoirs source rock ( 1). sstones Lower Permian Rotliegend formation forms excellent reservoirs sealed by Upper Permian Zechstein carbonate Rotliegend salt formations (s 5 6) [40].reservoirs stratigraphy sstones Lower Permian formation forms excellent sealed by Upper Permian Zechstein carbonate salt formations (s 5 6) [40]. stratigraphy North Permian Sea can be viewed carbonate in three geological eras, Paleozoic, Cenozoic. Upper Zechstein salt formations (s 5Mesozoic, 6) [40]. stratigraphy North Sea can be viewed in three geological eras, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic. present studysea focuses onviewed rock called eras, North Sea Group, assembled North can be in formation three geological Paleozoic, Mesozoic, during Cenozoic. present study focuses on rock formation called North Sea Group, assembled during Tertiary study Quaternary Sea Group divided into three sub-formations: present focusesperiod. on rocknorth formation calledcan be North Sea Group, assembled during Tertiary Quaternary period. North Sea Group can be divided into three sub-formations: Lower North Sea (Paleogene), Middle North Sea (Paleogene), Upper North Sea (Neogene). Lower North Sea (Paleogene), Middle North Sea (Paleogene), Upper North Sea (Neogene).

5 Geosciences 2018, 8, Tertiary Quaternary period. North Sea Group can be divided into three sub-formations: Lower North Sea (Paleogene), Middle North Sea (Paleogene), Upper North Sea (Neogene). Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW tectonic framework regional cross-section North Sea after Rondeel, Batjes 4. tectonic framework regional cross-section North Sea after Rondeel, Batjes Nieuwenhuijs [40]. red box indicates F3 block ( study area). Nieuwenhuijs [40]. red box indicates F3 block ( study area). Lower North Sea Group essentially consists grey ss, sstones, clays is a product Lower several Northsmall Sea Group large essentially scale clastic consists sedimentation grey cycles ss, in a sstones, marine setting at clays edge is a North Sea Basin. upper boundary this group is characterized by unconformably overlying product several small large scale clastic sedimentation cycles in a marine setting at edge deposits Middle North Sea Group or younger units, while lower boundary is characterized North Sea Basin. upper boundary this group is characterized by unconformably overlying

6 Geosciences 2018, 8, deposits Middle North Sea Group or younger units, while lower boundary is characterized by an unconformity expressed as a sharp lithologic break marking top Chalk Group. overall Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 21 depositional setting this group is predominantly marine [41]. by Middle an unconformity North Sea expressed is a group as a sharp formations lithologic consisting break marking ss, top silts, Chalk clays Group. with main s distribution overall depositional along setting sourn this group margin is predominantly Northmarine Sea Basin. [41]. depositional setting this Middle North Sea is a group formations consisting ss, silts, clays with main group is interpreted predominantly as marine with some lagoon coastal plain sediments [41]. s distribution along sourn margin North Sea Basin. depositional setting this group Upper is interpreted North Sea predominantly Group is as interpreted marine with some as lagoon a sequence coastal clays plain sediments fine-grained [41]. to coarse-grained Upper ssnorth withsea gravel, Group is peat, interpreted as brown a sequence coal seams. clays fine-grained general to coarse-grained trend from coarseto fine-grained ss with ss gravel, ispeat, observed brown towards coal seams. north general trend west from region coarse- to fine-grained North Seass Basin. lower boundary is observed towards this sub-group north iswest region Middle North North Sea Sea group Basin. lower orboundary older beds, this upper boundary sub-group is is overlain Middle by North Sea present group l or surface older or beds, seafloor. upper overall boundary depositional is overlain setting by present l surface or seafloor. overall depositional setting is interpreted as shallow is interpreted as shallow marine settings terrestrial beds a fluvial lacustrine origin. marine settings terrestrial beds a fluvial lacustrine origin. uppermost portion this uppermost group may portion contain glacial this deposits group may [41]. contain glacial deposits [41]. 5. hydrocarbon plays North Sea Basin. Upper North Sea Group 5. hydrocarbon plays stratigraphy North Sea Basin. Upper North Sea Group is zone interest for this study. After Rondeel, Batjes Nieuwenhuijs [40]. is zone interest for this study. After Rondeel, Batjes Nieuwenhuijs [40].

7 Geosciences 2018, 8, Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW Detailed stratigraphy tectonic events in North Sea Basin [40] Data Data Methodology Methodology high high quality quality raw raw 3D 3D data data acquired acquired from from block block F3 located F3 located in North in Sea North Offshore Sea Offshore Nerls Nerls is used for is this used study. for this 3D study. survey 3D covered survey an area covered approximately an area approximately km data 16 volume km 2. consists data volume 650 inlines consists crosslines inlines 950 crosslines line spacing for both line spacing is 25 m with for both a 4 ms is 25 sample m with rate. a 4 ms sample rate. data volume was data loaded volume into an was open-source loaded into geological an opensource modeling geological interpretative modeling tool; interpretative in this case tool; OpendTect in this case stware. OpendTect dataset stware. also consists dataset four wells also consists with relevant four log wells data with available, relevant in particular log data available, well logs in gamma particular ray, well caliper, logs P-wave, gamma density, ray, caliper, porosity P-wave, in true density, vertical depth. porosity Both in true vertical well depth. data, Both as well as stware, well data, was as provided well as by dgb stware, Earth was Sciences provided through by dgb its open Earth source Sciences through repository its open portal. source An integrated repository approach portal. was An used integrated to achieve approach aim was used study to achieve aim 7 shows a study brief summary 7 shows workflow. a brief summary workflow. very first step in workflow was to improve quality raw data by increasing signal to noise ratio hence suppressing noise from data in order to display

8 interpretations. Conventional interpretation is a time-consuming process geometrical expression reflectors is qualitatively mapped in time with little or no emphasis on amplitude variations [43]. dip-steered 3D auto tracker [9] in OpendTect allows multiple horizon interpretations in a short period time. Eight horizons were auto-tracked interpreted pertaining to Geosciences region 2018, 8, 79 interests which will later act as a bounding surface for Sequence Stratigraphic 8 21 Interpretation System (SSIS) workflow workflow for for structural structural stratigraphic stratigraphic interpretation interpretation applied applied to to data. data. OpendTect very first SSIS step allows in workflow data to was be tostudied improve in chronostratigraphic quality raw domain data where by numerous increasingevents signal are auto-tracked noise ratioper sequence hence suppressing bounded by major noisehorizons from created data in previously. order to display SSIS preserved plug-in allows geologic for signals. reconstruction re are three depositional [42] differenthistory algorithms using available HorizonCube in OpendTect slider, academic version for creating SteeringCubes which are BG Fast Steering (Gradient Structure Tensor) method, event-based steering method, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) method. FFT algorithm is preferred in this study for horizon tracking HorizonCube processing [11] due to its sensitivity to noise. A dip-steered median filter was applied to steering cube to solve noise problem. steering cube forms foundation for structure oriented filtering volumes, enhancing multi-trace attributes eventually generating curvature attributes. se dips can be displayed as overlays on sections. dip-steering plug-in in OpendTect allows interpreters to improve multi-trace attributes by extracting attribute input along reflectors. It also helps with calculation some unique attributes such as curvature, similarity, variance dip also with interpretation single horizons or multi-zones through dip-steered auto-tracking technique. re are many different types SteeringCube that can be calculated in OpendTect each m has ir own advantages applications. In this study, detailed dip-steered SteeringCube is preferred as it preserves contains several important geologic details such as dip associated faults or sedimentary structures, hence provides perfect platform for detailed attribute analysis [11]. Right after conditioning image, next step in workflow is horizon interpretations. Conventional interpretation is a time-consuming process geometrical expression reflectors is qualitatively mapped in time with little or no emphasis on amplitude variations [43]. dip-steered 3D auto tracker [9] in OpendTect allows multiple horizon interpretations in a short period time. Eight horizons were auto-tracked interpreted pertaining to region interests which will later act as a bounding surface for Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation System (SSIS).

9 Geosciences 2018, 8, OpendTect SSIS allows data to be studied in chronostratigraphic domain where numerous Geosciences 2018, events 8, x FOR arepeer auto-tracked REVIEW per sequence bounded by major horizons created previously SSIS plug-in allows for reconstruction depositional history using HorizonCube slider, flattening data in Wheeler domain making full system tract interpretations with automatic stratigraphic surface identifications base-level reconstructions ( 8). re are two types HorizonCube available in OpendTect. first one is is Continuous HorizonCube where all horizons exist everywhere in in volume. When horizons converge, density horizons increases this usually tends to happen along unconformities condensed sections. Continuous events can neir cross nor terminate against or events. second HorizonCube is is called Truncated HorizonCube where chronostratigraphic events terminate against or events when y approach adjacent events closer than a certain user-defined threshold value [11,12,17]. This characteristic is is very significant as as it it incorporates unconformities automatically reveals depositional hiatuses in Wheeler domain. In this study, Continuous HorizonCube was initially created later converted into a Truncated HorizonCube by following methodology used by Qayyum et al. [11], de Bruin et al. [10,44], Brouwer et al. [45] to to map major bounding surfaces. Intermediate horizons were auto-tracked with sub-sample accuracy. Two auto-tracked modes are available: data-driven model-driven. In data-driven model, horizons are auto-tracked, following local dip azimuth events. Thus, Thus, it will it will follow follow geometries geometries reflections reflections is ispreferred preferred mode mode to construct to construct accurate accurate subsurface subsurface models models interpret interpret data within data within a geologic a geologic framework. framework. In In model-driven approach, approach, horizons horizons are calculated are calculated by interpolation by interpolation or by or adding by adding horizons horizons parallel parallel to toupper upper or lower or lower bounding bounding surfaces. surfaces. model-driven model-driven mode mode is a isway a way slicing data relative to framework horizons. 8. Synchronized sequence stratigraphic interpretation done in two domains; (A) 8. Synchronized sequence stratigraphic interpretation done in two domains; (A) Structural or Chronostratigraphic domain (B) Wheeler domain. Structural or Chronostratigraphic domain (B) Wheeler domain. next stage in workflow is to create a Wheeler diagram through 3D automated Wheeler Transformation next stage [46]. inthrough workflow Wheeler is totransformation, create a Wheeler diagram through data 3D attribute automated volumes Wheeler were Transformation flattened in 3D along [46]. Through auto-tracked Wheelerhorizons Transformation, while at same time, datahonoring attribute erosional volumesevents were flattened non-depositional in 3D along hiatuses auto-tracked [10]. By horizons integrating while at Wheeler same domain time, honoring structural erosional domain, events we can non-depositional make a system tract hiatuses interpretation [10]. By integrating on multiple 2D Wheeler sections domain which will structural give a full domain, or complete we can 3D make understing a system tract interpretation system tracts. on multiple 2D sections which will give a full or complete 3D understing final step system workflow tracts. is attribute analysis. Three attribute analyses were performed, namely final minimum step similarity, workflowapparent is attribute dip, analysis. maximum Three attribute curvature analyses attributes. were performed, minimum namely similarity attribute minimumis similarity, known to be useful dip, in highlighting maximum discontinuity curvature attributes. data minimum related to similarity faulting or attribute stratigraphy is known such to be as useful channel in highlighting edges. In this discontinuity study, a fully steered data similarity relatedattribute to faultingis preferred in order to honor dip-steered HorizonCube which preserves important details such as dip associated faults or sedimentary structures. time gate used is [ 8, 24] ms as this will highlight geological features below stratigraphic horizons eliminate overlapping features above horizons. apparent dip attribute is known to be useful in highlighting undulations incisions on surfaces by calculating lateral gradient geological dip. advantage

10 Geosciences 2018, 8, or stratigraphy such as channel edges. In this study, a fully steered similarity attribute is preferred in order to honor dip-steered HorizonCube which preserves important details such as dip associated faults or sedimentary structures. time gate used is [ 8, 24] ms as this will highlight geological features below stratigraphic horizons eliminate overlapping features above horizons. apparent dip attribute is known to be useful in highlighting undulations incisions on surfaces by calculating lateral gradient geological dip. advantage using this attribute is to allow interpreters to analyze structural stratigraphic features at specific azimuth directions (0 360 ). In this study, three azimuth direction were selected: 0, 45, 90. default time gate [ 28, 28] ms a step-out value (1, 1, 1) is chosen as input parameters. maximum curvature attribute defines maximum bending or curvature surface at a specific point orthogonal to minimum curvature. It is known to be useful in highlighting channel lateral distribution delineating downthrown or upthrown part a fault block. This attribute was derived from dip-steered HorizonCube by using default time gate [ 28, 28] ms, a step-out value (2, 2, 2) a constant velocity 2500 m/s as input parameters. se three attributes were performed on stratigraphic surfaces interpreted automatically in previous stages. Table 1 shows parameter setting used in filtering conditioning cube in order to calculate attribute response. Attribute analysis allows us to identify both structural stratigraphic features, especially on dip-steered cube. Table 1. Seismic attributes parameter settings. Attribute Time Gates (ms) Step-Out Dip-Steering Statistical Operator Raw Steering - (1, 1, 1) - - Detailed Steering - (1, 1, 3) - - Background Steering - (5, 5, 5) - - Similarity ( 8, 24) (1, 1, 1) Steered Minimum Full Curvature ( 28, 28) (2, 2, 2) Steered Maximum Dip ( 28, 28) (1, 1, 1) Steered Apparent 4. Results Discussion 4.1. Sequence Stratigraphic Interpretation synchronized analysis in both structural Wheeler domains allows interpretation system tracts helps us to define sequence into a different set packages. interpretation was made using a four-systems tract sequence stratigraphic model introduced by Hunt Tucker [47] termed Depositional Model IV by Catuneanu [48]. Following work Qayyum et al. [11,12,17], stratigraphic interpretation is made three depositional sequences are identified ( 9). Each sequence has a complete set packages comprising Transgressive System Tract (TST), Highst System Tract (HST), Falling Stage System Tract (FSST), Lowst System Tract (LST). se packages are bounded at top by its subsequent stratigraphic surfaces, namely maximum flooding surfaces (MFS), basal surface force regression (BSFR), correlative conformity sub-aerial conformity (CC/SU), maximum regressive surface (MRS) respectively. In a normal base-level cycle with a constant magnitude base level rise fall, a complete set packages TST, HST, FSST, LST are to be expected. However, in reality, with varying magnitudes base level rise fall unpredictable fluctuations base level in geologic time, not all packages exist in same sequence.

11 Geosciences 2018, 8, Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW complete sequence stratigraphic systems. three depositional sequence is 9. complete sequence stratigraphic systems. three depositional sequence is identified. identified. However, only two depositional sequence is considered in this study. However, only two depositional sequence is considered in this study. Table 2. Stratigraphic surfaces with ir corresponding events depositional sequence. In order to achieve objective this study (to identify geomorphological changes No Stratigraphic Surfaces Corresponding System Tract Events Depositional Sequence stratigraphic surfaces), only stratigraphic surfaces from depositional sequence 1 (MFS1, 1 MFS1 End TST1 1 BSFR1, CC/SU1) MRS1 surface from depositional sequence 2 were considered in this study. 2 BSFR1 End HST1 1 Six stratigraphic surfaces were identified only four are n extracted as horizons from 3 CC/SU1 End FSST1 1 HorizonCube for attribute analysis. Table 2 shows stratigraphic surfaces interest ir 4 MRS1 End LST1 2 corresponding 5 system BSFR2 tract events depositional End sequence. HST2 2 6 CC/SU2 End FSST2 2 Table 2. Stratigraphic surfaces with ir corresponding events depositional sequence. 7 MRS2 End LST2 3 No Stratigraphic Surfaces Corresponding System Tract Events Depositional Sequence 4.2. Analysis 1 MFS1 End TST Similarity BSFR1 End HST1 1 3 CC/SU1 End FSST1 1 4 dip-steered MRS1 similarity was preferred in End study LST1 by using steering data representative 2 a regional 5 dip which BSFR2 provided high-quality visualization End HST2 trace 2 better geomorphological 6 interpretations. CC/SU2 similarity End attribute FSST2 was calculated by using user-defined 2 parameters 7 which are MRS2 based on quality, frequency, End LST2 sampling rate. time-gate 3 operator determines desired wavelength structures to be detected. In this case, a time gate 8 ms 4.2. Analysis +24 ms, which will highlight geological features below stratigraphic horizons eliminate overlapping features above horizons, was used to calculate similarity traces in Similarity data. A step-out (1, 1, 1) was used for similarity attribute this implies that sampling was taken dip-steered along every similarity inline was crossline. preferred in step-out study defines by using radius steering investigation data representative in inline, crossline, a regional dip time-slice, which provided also determines high-quality sampling visualization size. trace better geomorphological 10 shows interpretations. result similarity similarity attribute attribute analysis was performed calculated on by each using stratigraphic user-defined surface. It can be observed that a northwest-souast trending, parallel asymmetrical feature parameters which are based on quality, frequency, sampling rate. time-gate operator presents on each surface. This feature is identified as a s wave or sediment wave. S waves are determines desired wavelength structures to be detected. In this case, a time gate 8 ms elongated depositional bed forms with undulating surfaces which are located mainly in transverse +24 ms, which will highlight geological features below stratigraphic horizons eliminate or with a small angle to dominant current direction. Its environment formation is usually in overlapping features above horizons, was used to calculate similarity traces in shallow water, riverbeds, tidal channel, estuaries, flood tidal deltas. In this case, s waves give an data. indication A step-out paleo-water (1, 1, 1) depths was used for direction similarity flow. attribute S waves this usually implies form that in water sampling with was a depth taken along less than every 30 inline m. crossline. step-out defines radius investigation in inline, crossline, Maximum time-slice, flooding surface also determines marks end sampling transgressive size. system tract or end shoreline 10 transgression. shows result Hence similarity an MFS1 attribute surface analysis ( performed 10A) separates on each stratigraphic underlying surface. It can retrograding be observed transgressive that a northwest-souast system tract from trending, prograding parallel highst asymmetrical system tract feature which progrades presents on each on surface. top it. This feature change is from identified retrogradational as a s wave to overlying or sediment progradational wave. S stacking wavespatterns are elongated take depositional place during bed continued forms with base undulating level rise surfaces shoreline. whichit are can located be observed mainly from in transverse 10A that or with a small s angle waves to developed dominant lwards current direction. while BSFR1 Its environment surfaces ( formation 10B), isfield usually s in shallow waves water, has

12 s waves are in an agreement with regressive progressive nature system tracts. Or distinct features that can be observed here are a series meering deep water channels with a norast-southwest flow direction indicated by blue arrows on 10. lateral continuity deep marine channel is not readily identifiable by similarity attribute as it does not take into account true geological dip curvature certain geologic features which can be Geosciences best 2018, analyze 8, 79 by using dip curvature attributes. Pockmark a geological feature commonly found in seabed can also be seen on each stratigraphic surface. Pockmark can be considered as deep marine craters which are caused by biogenic gas liquid escaping or a dewatering event riverbeds, which tidal is very channel, common estuaries, in North flood Sea region tidal[49]. deltas. Overall, In this similar case, observations s waves were give made an indication Niger Delta [1,15] regarding application similarity attributes in interpreting sub- paleo-water depths direction flow. S waves usually form in water with a depth less scale structural stratigraphic features. than 30 m minimum minimum similarity attributes for foreach eachsurface. surface. (A) Maximum (A) Maximum flooding flooding surfaces 1 surfaces 1 (MFS1); (MFS1); (B) basal (B) basal surface force regression 1 (BSFR1);(C) (C) correlative conformity conformity sub-aerial sub-aerial conformity conformity 1 (CC/SU1); 1 (CC/SU1); (D) (D) maximum regressive surface 1 1 (MRS1). yellow yellow dashed dashed line line indicates indicates paleo-coastline paleo-coastline position. position. existence a adeep deep meering channel channel is denoted is denoted by by blue arrows. blue arrows. Maximum flooding surface marks end transgressive system tract or end shoreline transgression. Hence an MFS1 surface ( 10A) separates underlying retrograding transgressive system tract from prograding highst system tract which progrades on top it. change from retrogradational to overlying progradational stacking patterns take place during continued base level rise at shoreline. It can be observed from 10A that s waves developed lwards while on BSFR1 surfaces ( 10B), field s waves has shifted significantly basin-ward as indicated by position paleo-coastline ( yellow dashed line). highst system tract is associated with aggradational progradational sediment deposits where relative sea level is undergoing a slow rise. sediment supply is sufficient enough to outpace sea level rise hence drive a basin-ward building f coast [48]. In 10C, it can be observed on CC/SU1 surface that s waves have shifted basin-ward again due to a massive drop in relative sea level hence is considered a by-product forced regression. For MRS1 surfaces ( 10D), redevelopment realignment s waves are observed as coastline shifted back lward due to relative sea-level rise. rise in sea-levels causes sediment deposits to prograde aggrade. overall basin- l-ward shifts s waves are in an agreement with regressive progressive nature system tracts. Or distinct features that can be observed here are a series meering deep water channels with a norast-southwest flow direction indicated by blue arrows on 10. lateral continuity deep marine channel is not readily identifiable by similarity attribute as it does not take into account true geological dip curvature certain geologic features which can be

13 Geosciences 2018, 8, best analyze by using dip curvature attributes. Pockmark a geological feature commonly found in seabed can also be seen on each stratigraphic surface. Pockmark can be considered as deep marine craters which are caused by biogenic gas liquid escaping or a dewatering event which is very common in North Sea region [49]. Overall, similar observations were made in Niger Delta [1,15] regarding application similarity attributes in interpreting sub- scale structural stratigraphic features Dip-Apparent Attributes Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW MFS1 Surfaces Dip-Apparent Attributes azimuth attribute helps visualize geological dips curvatures in apparent dips ranging MFS1 Surfaces from degrees. In this study, three apparent dips were used to identify analyze structural azimuth attribute helps geological dipsapparent curvatures dips ranging stratigraphic features which arevisualize 0, 45, 90. An dip atin0 apparent indicates that from degrees. In this is study, threeinapparent dips were used to identify numbers analyze while a reflector at evaluation point dipping direction increasing cross-line structural stratigraphic features which are 0, 45, 90. An apparent dip at 0 indicates that 90 apparent dip angle indicates that reflector at evaluation point is dipping in reflector at evaluation point is dipping in direction increasing cross-line direction increasing inline numbers. numbers while a 90 apparent dip angle indicates that reflector at evaluation point is Based on in 11, lateral continuity deep marine meering channel ( blue arrow) dipping direction increasing inline numbers. is clearly observable especially a 0 45 apparent dipmarine angle. meering lateralchannel extension s Based on 11, atlateral continuity deep ( blue waves arrow) can beisidentified on all apparent angles where troughs crests extension swaves clearly observable especially at a 0 45 apparent dip angle. lateral can sseen. wavesor can bestructural identified on all apparent troughs crests s waves be clearly features that angles can bewhere identified here are a series minor faults can be clearly seen. Or structural features that can be identified here are a series minor a major fault. Three subtle features ( red arrow in 11B) believed to be eirfaults a fault or a major fault. Three subtle features ( red arrow in 11B) believed to be eir a fault or channel trending norast-southwest, cutting through s waves, is clearly visible only when channel trending norast-southwest, cutting through s waves, is clearly visible only when apparent dip angle is at D shows maximum deposition or depocenter sediment apparent dip angle is at D shows maximum deposition or depocenter deposited within transgressive system tracts. sediment deposited within transgressive system tracts. 11. apparent dip attribute for MFS1 surfaces at (A) 0, (B) 45, (C) 90, (D) Isopach 11. apparent dip attribute for MFS1 surfaces at (A) 0, (B) 45, (C) 90, (D) Isopach map. blue arrows indicate deep meering channels, red arrows indicate existence map. indicate deep meering channels, redwhite arrows indicate existence a blue minorarrows sub- fault which is only clearly visible in (B) while arrows highlight a minor sub- fault which is only clearly visible in (B) while white arrows highlight existence pockmark. existence pockmark. BSFR1 Surfaces 12 shows aggradational progradational basin-ward movement sediment deposits due to steady relative sea level rise at shoreline normal regression. yellow line indicates paleo-coastline at very end highst system tract stages at early stage force regression. red line indicates lateral extent sediment deposition on top previous stratigraphic surface (MFS1) which, in stratal termination terms, is known as downlap. This

14 Geosciences 2018, 8, BSFR1 Surfaces 12 shows aggradational progradational basin-ward movement sediment deposits due to steady relative sea level rise at shoreline normal regression. yellow line indicates paleo-coastline at very end highst system tract stages at early stage force regression. red line indicates lateral extent sediment deposition on top previous Geosciences stratigraphic 2018, 8, x FOR PEER surface REVIEW (MFS1) which, in stratal termination terms, is known as14 downlap. 21 This also correlates directly to region maximum deposition ( 12D). apparent-dip also correlates directly to region maximum deposition ( 12D). apparent-dip attribute attribute viewed at all azimuth angles shows that existing s waves have shifted basin-ward viewed at all azimuth angles shows that existing s waves have shifted basin-ward subsequently buried buriedsome somepart part existing existing deep deep marine marine meering meering channel channel ( blue ( arrow). blue arrow) apparent dip dip attribute for for BSFR1 surfaces at (A) 0, 0,(B) (B) 45, (C), (C) 90, 90(D), (D) Isopach Isopach map, map, (E) 3D(E) turbidite 3D turbidite geobody extraction where darker shades indicate mud-rich turbidite turbidite while while lighter lighter shades shades indicate indicate s-rich s-rich turbidite. blue arrows indicate deep deep meering meering channels channels black arrows indicate existence a major fault. black arrows indicate existence a major fault. Recent studies done by Illidge, et al. [50] on same area indicate presence turbidite deposits generated during FSST stages. main turbidites geobodies were found right after last prograding flapping lobe where high-density turbidite deposits are most likely to be found as mounded geometries. This confirms observation in this study as shown by maximum depocenter ( 12D) on BSFR1 surfaces which might indicate high-density turbidite deposits. 3D

15 Geosciences 2018, 8, Recent studies done by Illidge, et al. [50] on same area indicate presence turbidite deposits generated during FSST stages. main turbidites geobodies were found right after last prograding flapping lobe where high-density turbidite deposits are most likely to be Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW found as mounded geometries. This confirms observation in this study as shown by maximum depocenter geobodies are ( modeled 12D) in on this BSFR1 study surfaces by integrating which might indicate 3D horizons high-density framework, turbidite system deposits. tracts, 3D internal geobodies are geometry, modeled in this maximum study by depocenter integrating data. 3D Illidge horizons et al. framework, [50] concluded system that tracts, internal proximal portion geometry, turbidite maximum is s-rich depocenter compare data. to Illidge distal portion et al. [50] which concluded is mud-rich. that In proximal terms hydrocarbon portion play, turbidite underlying is s-rich MFS compare surface to might distal act portion as a potential which is source mud-rich. rock In terms late hydrocarbon stage an play, FSST stage underlying might have MFS generated surface might a potential act as a seal potential layer [50]. source rock late stage an FSST stage might have generated a potential seal layer [50]. CC/SU1 Surfaces CC/SU1 Surfaces CC/SU1 is part a forced regressional surface where re is a high rate progradation CC/SU1 is part a forced regressional surface where re is a high rate progradation due due to a significant sea-level fall at shoreline. 13 shows downstepping, flapping to a significant sea-level fall at shoreline. 13 shows downstepping, flapping pattern, pattern, progradational movement sediment deposits due to force regression. yellow progradational movement sediment deposits due to force regression. yellow line line indicates paleo-coastline at end falling stage system tract red line indicates indicates paleo-coastline at end falling stage system tract red line indicates progression lateral extent sediment deposition. product wave reworking as progression lateral extent sediment deposition. product wave reworking as mentioned mentioned before is evident on dip attributes ( 13A C). Sediment continues to be deposited before is evident on dip attributes ( 13A C). Sediment continues to be deposited basin-ward basin-ward on top existing surfaces as flap this can be seen in distribution on top existing surfaces as flap this can be seen in distribution depocenter or depocenter or maximum deposition sediments ( 13D). deep marine channel maximum deposition sediments ( 13D). deep marine channel continues to be buried continues to be buried by basin-ward movement sediment on top. by basin-ward movement sediment on top. 13. apparent dip attributes for CC/SU1 surfaces at (A) 00,, (B) 45,, (C) 90,, (D) Isopach map. MRS1 Surfaces MRS1 is part a lowst system tract where re is a steady rise in sea-level. This stage is marked by a steady progradational aggradational movement sediment. Based on 14, due to an influx sediment depositions, lateral extent sediment deposition ( red line) has shifted significantly basin-ward has created a favorable setting for realignment

16 Geosciences 2018, 8, MRS1 Surfaces MRS1 is part a lowst system tract where re is a steady rise in sea-level. This stage is marked by a steady progradational aggradational movement sediment. Based on 14, due to an influx sediment depositions, lateral extent sediment deposition ( red line) has shifted Geosciences significantly 2018, basin-ward 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW has created a favorable setting for realignment redevelopment s waves at basin region. S waves are clearly visible when apparent dip is at a 0 dip 90 is at a 0 90 angle. existing deep marine channel is completely overlaid on top by angle. existing deep marine channel is completely overlaid on top by massive basin-ward massive basin-ward influx sediment. It is also possibly shifted basin-ward at deep marine influx sediment. It is also possibly shifted basin-ward at deep marine setting low energy setting low energy environment where formation deep marine channel is favorable. environment where formation deep marine channel is favorable. 14D shows 14D shows distribution sediment depocenter occurring during lowst system distribution sediment depocenter occurring during lowst system tract that it is in tract that it is in agreement with progradational aggradational movement sediment. agreement with progradational aggradational movement sediment. 14. apparent dip attribute for MRS1 surfaces at (A) apparent dip attribute for MRS1 surfaces at (A) 0,, (B) 45 (B) 45,, (C) 90 (C) 90,, (D) Isopach (D) Isopach map. blue arrows indicate redevelopment s waves towards basin-ward region. map. blue arrows indicate redevelopment s waves towards basin-ward region Maximum Curvature curvature attribute has been known to be very powerful a useful tool in delineating faults that that are are smeared smeared due due to inaccurate to inaccurate migration migration [51] [51] predicting predicting orientation orientation distribution distribution fractures [52,53]. fractures Curvature [52,53]. also Curvature aids inalso aids mapping mapping stratigraphic stratigraphic features such features as channels, such as channels, levees, bars, levees, contourites, bars, contourites, especially especially in a regionin where a region older where rocksolder have undergone rocks have differential undergone differential compactions compactions [54]. [54]. In this study, a Maximum Curvature attribute was used applied to each stratigraphic layer interest outcomeis isshown shownin in Sigismondi Sigismondi Soldo Soldo [51] [51] clarified clarified that that use use a correct a correct color color map map with with an an appropriate appropriate range range values values is important is important for for better better visualization visualization as as wrong wrong use use a color a color map map can can result result in in loss loss structural structural stratigraphic stratigraphic definitions. definitions. In this study, we eir used a grey scale or a coherency color map as it helped in enhancing subtle discontinuities. Considering 15, maximum curvature was able to identify lateral extent deep marine meering channel on each stratigraphic surface. Especially on MFS1 surface ( 15A), three subtle features noted by colored arrows are observed later confirmed to be a series three separate river channels as indicated in 15E. This subtle feature is not clearly

17 Geosciences 2018, 8, Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW In this study, we eir used a grey scale or a coherency color map as it helped in enhancing subtle discontinuities. Considering 15, maximum curvature was able to identify lateral extent terms structural features, a major faultstratigraphic is observedsurface. on eachespecially stratigraphic surface Indeep marine meering channel on each on MFS1trending surface northwest-souast as denoted black existence this major fault is confirmed ( 15A), three subtle featuresby noted by arrows. colored arrows are observed later confirmed to be viewing it in inline sectionas ( 16). only problem with feature maximum curvature abyseries three separate river channels indicated in 15E. This subtle is not clearly is that it does notsimilarity really indicate upthrown (or anticlinal features) or downthrown (or synclinal observed in or dip attributes. Or stratigraphic features that were highlighted by features) part fault block without viewing it from section. maximum curvature are s-waves directly pockmark. maximum maximum curvature (D) curvature attributes attributes for for each each surface. surface. (A) (A) MFS1, MFS1, (B) (B) BSFR1, BSFR1, (C) (C) CC/SU1, CC/SU1, (D) MRS1 (E) Seismic section indicates series minor faults. black arrows indicate a major fault MRS1 (E) Seismic section indicates series minor faults. black arrows indicate a major fault towards towards south south while while white white arrows arrows indicate indicate aa series series minor minor faults faults towards towards north. north. In terms structural features, a major fault is observed on each stratigraphic surface trending northwest-souast as denoted by black arrows. existence this major fault is confirmed by viewing it in inline section ( 16). only problem with maximum curvature is

18 Geosciences 2018, 8, that it does not really indicate upthrown (or anticlinal features) or downthrown (or synclinal features) part fault block without directly viewing it from section. Geosciences 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW a b 16. Cross-section major normal fault observed in F3 block which is representing prile 16. Cross-section a major normal fault observed in F3 block which is representing prile a b a b drawn drawn in in 15A. 15A. 5. Conclusions 5. Conclusions This research paper has managed to show how integrated interpretation geological This research paper has managed to show how integrated interpretation geological information information allows researchers to accurately interpret depositional environment a basin as well allows researchers to accurately interpret depositional environment a basin as well as locating as locating both sub- geomorphologic features. By utilizing steering cube both sub- geomorphologic features. By utilizing steering cube wheeler wheeler transformation, we improved accuracy in interpreting stratigraphic surfaces transformation, we improved accuracy in interpreting stratigraphic surfaces system tracts system tracts when compared to conventional interpretation stratigraphic surfaces that relies when compared to conventional interpretation stratigraphic surfaces that relies on manual on manual interpretation consumes a lot time. In this study, three depositional sequences were interpretation consumes a lot time. In this study, three depositional sequences were identified identified using synchronized analyses both structural wheeler domain following using synchronized analyses both structural wheeler domain following Depositional Depositional Model IV. Each sequence has a set packages comprising TST, HST, FSST, LST Model IV. Each sequence has a set packages comprising TST, HST, FSST, LST ir ir corresponding stratigraphic surfaces. Defining stratigraphic surfaces allow us to corresponding stratigraphic surfaces. Defining stratigraphic surfaces allow us to accurately accurately observe accumulation sediment changes in geomorphology on each observe accumulation sediment changes in geomorphology on each stratigraphic surface stratigraphic surface which was demonstrated in this study by applying appropriate which was demonstrated in this study by applying appropriate attributes. As we move along attributes. As we move along basal cycle, changes in geomorphology evolution basal cycle, changes in geomorphology evolution sediment depocenter on each sediment depocenter on each stratigraphic surface is very much evident in response to sea stratigraphic surface is very much evident in response to sea level changes hence control level changes hence control sediment deposition or influx. basin-ward /or l-ward sediment deposition or influx. basin-ward /or l-ward movement sediment is very movement sediment is very clear as indicated by changes in geomorphology. In addition, by clear as indicated by changes in geomorphology. In addition, by analyzing internal analyzing internal geometry, system tract, well log, depocenter, it enables us to locate geometry, system tract, well log, depocenter, it enables us to locate presence turbidite presence turbidite geobody generated during late stage FSST as predicted. For future geobody generated during late stage FSST as predicted. For future research, this study might be research, this study might be useful in defining a new petroleum play if drilling core data useful in defining a new petroleum play if drilling core data analog study are integrated with analog study are integrated with present workflow. present workflow. Acknowledgments: Acknowledgments: first first author author is very is very much much grateful grateful to to Government Government Brunei Darussalam Brunei Darussalam for providing for providing a scholarship a scholarship to carry out to his carry study out at his study University at University Brunei Darussalam. Brunei Darussalam. open source open datasource for this data study for this also study highly is also acknowledged. highly acknowledged. authors are authors really grateful are really grateful thankful tothankful dgb Earth to dgb Sciences Earth for Sciences donating for donating OpendTect OpendTect stware for stware academic for use academic at Department use at Department Geological Sciences, Geological Universiti Sciences, Brunei Universiti Darussalam. Brunei Darussalam. authors thank lecturers authors thank staffs lecturers Geological staffs Sciences Geological Department Sciences for providing Department enabling for providing environment or useful supports. enabling environment or useful supports. Author Contributions: Mohammad Afifi Ishak is an M.Sc student who carried out this study Md Aminul Islam is his principal supervisor who formulate idea study, supervise first author while carrying out this study, mentor him to develop manuscript. Or two coauthors Mohamed Ragab Shalaby Nurul

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