The Relative Chronology of Cultural Episodes. Coastal Sambaqui, Jabuticubiera II, in Santa Catarina, Brazil

Transcription

1 The Relative Chronology of Cultural Episodes at the Coastal Sambaqui, Jabuticubiera II, in Santa Catarina, Brazil Ricky J. Karl A Master's Report Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS WITH A MAJOR IN ARCHAEOLOGY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2000 AKfLUNti STATE MUSEUM L!BRARlf UN IV. OF AZ, TUCSON, AZ 85721

2 Table of Contents ABSTRACT 4 INTRODUCTION 5 BACKGROUND ON SHELLMOUND STUDIES 7 RECENT SHELLMOUND ANALYSIS 10 METHODOLOGY AT JABII /LII 13 ESTABLISHING THE TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIP OF FEATURES 13 Figure 1. The Calculation Method 16 ESTABLISHING THE RELATIONSHIP OF FEATURES 17 Figure 2. AutoCAD Direct Relationship of Burial 41 and Hearth Figure 3. Harris Matrix Direct Relationship 20 Figure 4. Harris Matrix of 91, 92, 93 and 106 Relationship 21 POSTHOLE, OYSTER SHELL, BEAD AND PEBBLE LOCATIONS 22 Figure 5. The Harris Matrix 23 Figure 6. Posthole and Burial Relationship 24 Figure 7. Pebble and Burial Relationship 25 Figure 8. Oyster Shell and Burial Relationship 26 Figure 9. Bead and Burial Relationship 27 RESULTS/DISCUSSION 28 THE DIRECT RELATIONSHIP 28 Table 1. Deposition Sequence 33 Table 2. Burial Descriptions 34 Table 3. Feature Descriptions 36 EVIDENCE FOR A SINGLE ACTIVITY LEVEL 41 Table 4. Faunal Remains 41 Figure 10. JABII /LII 42 Table 5. Otolith MNI 43 Figure 11. Burials 34, 37 and Figure 12. JABII /L1I Profile 46 Figure 13a. Level Figure 13b. Level I I 48 Figure 13c. Level Figure 13e. Level 8 51 Figure 13f Level 7 52 Figure 13g. Level 6 53 Figure 13h. Level 5 54 Figure 13i. Level 4 55 Figure 13j. Level 3 56 Figure 13k. Level 2 57

3 3 Figure 131. Level I 58 CONCLUSION 59 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 61 APPENDIX A - STRATUM DEPTH BELOW DATUM 62 APPENDIX B - POSTHOLE ATTRIBUTES 63 APPENDIX C - HEARTH ATTRIBUTES 74 APPENDIX D - BURIAL ATTRIBUTES 77 REFERENCES 78

4 Abstract 4 Initially attributed to natural formation processes, shellmounds were eventually acknowledged as cultural products. They were presumed to be the remains of prehistoric hunter -gatherer subsistence practices and of no great antiquity. Scholarly analysis of shellmounds focused on human consumption and discard accumulation rates aimed at establishing population estimates and the antiquity of the mounds. The identified strata were considered to represent insignificant cultural changes during the presumed short existence of the mounds and were analyzed as an after thought. The stratigraphic sequence of the mounds, however, is essential to understanding the behavior responsible for the mounds' formation. The 1999 field season at the coastal sambaqui, Jabuticubiera II, in Santa Catarina, Brazil conducted a horizontal excavation of an approximately 32 square meter area. The excavation defined three strata, nine inhumations, twenty -eight hearths and 317 postholes. This report will reconstruct the temporal and spatial relationship of these features using a Harris Matrix and AutoCAD drawings. The resultant temporal and spatial framework will be used to confirm a relationship between the individual burials and hearths. It will further imply that all these cultural features are contained within a single stratum of activity and the JABII/LII is a graveyard.

5 5 Introduction No part of archaeology is more difficult than establishing the chronology of a site (Hester 1997: 343). Prior to any analysis of the cultural significance or the implied behavior represented by the remains of human activities, the sequence of deposition of these remains must be established. The chronology of any excavation, as difficult as it may be, should be set as quickly and as accurately as possible so that the archaeologist's true objective of attempting to reconstruct the human behavior responsible for the remains can be pursued (Wheeler 1954: 39). The work at the sambaqui (shellmound) Jabuticubeira II, Locus II (JABII/LII), located near the coastal town of Jaguaruna in Santa Catarina, Brazil, during the 1999 season explored three strata (42, , 52). Within these defined layers, nine inhumations, twenty -eight hearths and 317 postholes were recorded. The thesis of this report will be to establish the temporal and spatial relationship of the features excavated at JABII/LII and to use this temporal framework to define the components of a discrete activity area. By establishing the temporal relationship of the burials and hearths within the strata two questions can be addressed. First, can an individual inhumation be directly associated temporally with specific individual hearths and the set be defined as a single cultural event? The 1997 season established that there was a recurrent association between burials, hearths and postholes. The 1999 excavations were designed to reconfirm and refine this association. Secondly, can the established temporal framework

6 of these cultural events be used to define a single occupation level, stratum , as a 6 graveyard? To answer these questions, the deposition for JABII/LII will be presented in a Harris Matrix that displays the relative sequence of each hearth and burial recorded during excavation within the defined stratum. The use of the Harris Matrix will assist in establishing not only the temporal framework but also in better defining the burial and hearth association. The matrix will clearly define the relative location of each feature within the three defined strata and support the hypothesis of a discrete activity level. This report will also include a series of AutoCAD plan views showing the succession of features as they were deposited in the excavation area. These plan views will further support the association between burial and hearth and the hypotheses of a discrete occupation level.

7 7 Background on Shellmound Studies Throughout most of the 18th century shellmounds were considered a natural phenomena (Waselkov 1987, Stein 1990). In the 19th century their natural origin came into question during the debate on the antiquity of Man. The work of the famous Danish Kjokkenmoddinger (Kitchen Midden) Interdisciplinary project of 1848 sponsored by the University of Copenhagen elevated the awareness of the shell mound sites and confirmed their great antiquity ( Waselkov 1987, Claassen 1998: 4). Research along the Coasts of North America by geologists (Vanuxem 1843, Morlot 1861, Putnam 1883) provided scientific evidence for the shellmounds' human origin and antiquity when work on shellmounds followed similar methods set forth by the Danish project. To substantiate their findings, scientists applied the geological laws of stratigraphy. They noted that if the mounds were of natural origin, they would be stratified and sorted by volume and weight. The strata would also include the remains of all local species of all ages and both sexes. The examined mounds however, were composed of mostly adult individuals and included the remains of several non -local species indicating a non -natural origin. The presence of artifacts, faunal remains and charcoal further supported a human origin hypothesis (Morlot 1861, Tait, 1869). With the origin of shellmounds generally accepted as of human origin (but see Serrano 1946 and Bailey 1977), shellmound research in the late 19th and early 20th centuries continued to focus on establishing the mound's age. This research was based on the hypothesized accumulation rates of a theoretical population that was presumed to have resided on the mounds (Dall 1877, Waselkov 1987).

8 Despite the criticism of Dall's method for calculating accumulation rates 8 (Walker 1883) as having too many independent variables and thus being unable to advance any type of serious estimates, establishing accumulation rates and population estimates became the standard research design for mound excavation. This standard of using species weights for analysis was refined throughout the subsequent fifty years (Nelson, 1909, Gifford 1916, Cook 1946) under the auspices of the California School of Midden Analysis (CSMA). Most archaeological work in the Old World employed the basic laws of geological stratigraphy during their excavations. Counter to Old World research however, and despite the CSMA, archaeological excavations in North America used stratigraphic procedures on a limited, after the fact basis. The antiquity of the New World was still considered to be a relatively short period and stratigraphic changes, although noticed, were deemed to represent minor adjustments in individual cultural behavior and not significant modifications to the population's behavior (Broughton 1999, Stein 1987, Waselkov 1987). With the advent of radiometric dating in 1946 the famous age -population equations promoted by the CSMA continued to estimate what 14C dating techniques could not: population size, length of occupation, and dietary analysis (Waselkov 1987). Criticisms on the use of the CSMA approach to midden studies continued to cite the unpredictability in the environmental, cultural and archaeological variables used in the equations (Bailey 1975, Clark 1975). More criticism came from the approach's assumption of intrasite stratigraphic homogeneity (Ambrose 1967).

9 Notwithstanding the obvious and acknowledged problems with the approach 9 (Waselkov 1987), and the antiquity of Man having become a null issue, the quantitative method first put forth by the CSMA continued to be used by archaeologists. It was combined with the stratigraphic methods first advocated by Uhle (1902, 1907) and Nelson (1909, 1910) to understand the behavior behind the formation of the shellmounds (Trigger 1986). More recent criticism of CSMA's use of the weight method for shell analysis has suggested that the abundance of individual species within shellmounds would be more accurate if MNI (minimum number of individuals) or NISP (number of identified species) were used (Mason et al. 1998). Glassow (2000) and Claassen (2000) have rebutted MNI or NISP citing them as impractical for shell mound analysis.

10 10 Recent Shel!mound Analysis Recent work on shellmounds along the Northwest Coast of North America have employed the Harris Matrix (Harris 1989, Stucki 1993, Stein 1996) to define the temporal relationship of micro strata and cultural features and to identify the formation processes behind the shelimound's structure. These temporal relationships and formation processes have then been used to define cultural activity areas. As pointed out by Stucki (1993: 122) the stratigraphic complexity of shellmounds has hindered the development of adequate methods for sequencing the cultural debris on a micro level. Through the micro level analysis of cultural debris and determining each level's temporal relationship, variability in intrasite spatial patterning can be recognized. It is this variability in intrasite spatial patterning that can provide the researcher with valuable insight into understanding the behavior responsible for the range of activity areas identified within the shellmounds. Observing that earlier methods for identifying activity areas had relied on various sampling strategies and the continued assumption of intrasite structural homogeneity, Stucki (1993) focused on identifying short -term activity areas. Layers of shell bearing sediments and refuse deposits determined these areas. During her stratigraphic reconstruction of the shell mound at the Hoko River Rockshelter in Washington State, she created a Harris Matrix to define the temporal sequence. Stucki defined individual activity areas by the changes in the sedimentary composition. Since shell deposits resist trampling and scuffage (Hughes and Lampert 1977), they could be easily defined. Each excavated section was profiled thereby

11 detailing individual activity areas and major stratum changes. These profiles were 11 used to generate a Harris Matrix for that section. The matrix identified the relative chronology of the major stratum and the layers of cultural debris within the major stratum. These individual matrices were then correlated into a single temporal sequence of the entire site. This method allowed Stucki to establish a detailed relative chronology of the individual cultural episodes that would assist in defining the formation processes responsible for the Hoko River Rockshelter stratigraphy. In a similar vein, Stein (1996) used the Harris Matrix at British Camp on the San Juan Islands of the Washington coast to elucidate the formation processes responsible for the creation of a very distinctive light and dark layer interface. This sequence of a light stratum over a dark stratum is consistent in many shellmounds along the Northwest Coast (Mitchell 1971:88, Stein 1992:12 and 1996, Sullivan 1993). Stein was concerned with the standard archaeological practice of relating a behavioral change to this interface. She suggested that this light to dark (L/D) interface was not an appropriate marker for cultural change in shellmounds. Stein proposed three possible explanations for the reoccurrence of the L/D interface (Stein 1984 and 1996:37). The first explanation acknowledges that a change in cultural behavior could account for the L/D interface. This change could be evidenced by a well- defined shift in artifact types and styles within each stratum. Stein's second and third hypotheses for the L/D interface are independent of cultural change and are based on post -depositional chemical changes. These changes could be the result of a surface - weathering agent that caused a chemical change by leaching organic material from the top down and resulted in a lighter colored matrix at the top. Alternatively, shellmounds

12 are usually located in a low coastal area. As such, they were subjected to fluctuations 12 in groundwater level. These fluctuations could cause a leaching away of the carbonates from the upper lighter layer, resulting in a darker matrix in the lower layer. To test these three hypotheses, Stein used the Harris Matrix to first establish the relative chronology of facies within an excavation unit (Stein 1996:43). She then recorded the changes in the frequency of lithic debris, sediment composition, and the percentage of organic matter and carbonate within each facies. Her conclusion was that the L/D interface at British Camp was not a result of cultural events, but rather the natural weathering events that caused the carbonates from the surface to filter down into the lower strata resulting in a darker matrix (Stein 1996: 51). The work at JABII/LII combines aspects of both Stucki's work at Hoko Rockshelter, the establishment of a sequence of cultural events, and that of Stein at British Camp, analyzing the data to define a change in activity level. By using the Harris matrix to establish the temporal sequence of clearly defined features within strata at JABII/LII, the sequence was then used to define an activity level.

13 13 Methodology at JABII /LII Establishing The Temporal Relationship of Features JABII/LII generally slopes downward from the southeast corner to the northwest. Excavation in 1999 began with stratum 42, a complex, loose, light- colored, clayey, white sand and shell, both crushed and whole, matrix. Stratum 42 did not undulate significantly but did get thinner near grid units D3-5 and E3-5. This thinning was the result of the layer below stratum 42, stratum , peaking near this grid location. The average thickness of stratum 42 is over 26cm. The stratum below stratum 42 was originally identified as feature in profile. Stratum was a dark gray to black, sandy clay, humus matrix with large quantities of fish bone and more crushed shell than whole. In the profile this stratum was thin at the B3 and B4 grid units location. Stratum , however, averaged 13.64cm thick and sloped upward from the southern edge to a high point near the D3-5 and E3-5 units. It then descended sharply to the north and northwest where the majority of the cultural features were recorded. Appendix A lists the beginning and termination depths of strata 42 and The final outcome of this report is to be a Harris Matrix displaying the sequence of the cultural features recorded at JABII/LlI that can be used to define a discrete activity level. To create this matrix, the location of each feature within the identified stratum and its vertical relationship to other features had to be determined. These features would then be placed in relative sequence to each other using the three relationships defined by the Harris Matrix.

14 The Harris Matrix as a viable archaeological tool was first published in (Brown and Harris 1993: 7). It was introduced as a format for presenting the relative sequence of features within the geological strata. Each feature and stratum deposited form an interface and the vertical relationships of these interfaces are recorded on a grid according to the laws of stratigraphy. There are three relationships recognized in Harris Matrices: no stratigraphic connection, superpositioning, or correlates that were once a single deposit (Harris 1989: 33, Harris et al 1993). The first step in establishing this temporal relationship was to compile the relationship of JABIULII's features to the lower termination of stratum The depth below datum (DBD) of each stratum was recorded on a 1 x 1 -meter grid prior to each stratum's excavation, its termination level, and after the entire stratum had been removed, the stratum's beginning level. Stratum was defined as an activity level and understanding the activities within this stratum was the prime objective. Using the DBD of stratum 's beginning, a 3d of this undulating surface was created and used as a baseline stratum. To establish the sequence of feature deposition each feature's beginning DBD (point of origin) and this point's measurement above or below the established baseline stratum were necessary. The point of origin of each burial was recorded as the distance of its upper center point relative to the baseline stratum. This assumes that burial pits would have emanated down from the existing surface. The beginning of each hearth was recorded as the distance of its lower center point relative to the baseline stratum. In general, hearths would have been initiated at the existing surface and built up. In a few cases, hearths were in the form of shallow pits. In these instances, the point of origin was

15 recorded similar to the burials. To calculate the feature's spatial relationship to the 15 baseline stratum when the DBD of the point of origin was known, a formula for the ratio of right triangles was applied (FIG. 1). Due to the frequent occurrence of feature superpositioning, the undulating nature of the baseline stratum and the generally complex stratigraphy of the shell mound (FIG 12), the distance above baseline stratum for some hearths' points of origin were occasionally unidentifiable during excavation. In these instances, estimates of distance above or below baseline stratum were calculated from those measurements that were obtainable. To calculate the hearth's point of origin distance above baseline stratum, the DBD when it was first encountered and its thickness were required. These two supplementary measurements were added to the calculated DBD of the baseline stratum directly below the hearth's point of origin. This sum was then subtracted from the larger of the two unit corner baseline stratum DBDs used to calculate the DBD of the baseline below the feature's point of origin (FIG. 1). The second step would be to define feature superpositioning. Most features were superimposed by or did themselves superimpose other features. The application of the law of superpositioning is a more accurate method for feature placement in relative sequence. Features that were recorded as originating or terminating on the baseline stratum were used as an additional reference points. In those cases the feature's point of origin was that point that intersected the DBD of the baseline stratum.

16 16 FA Grid Unit Corner 50 Grid Unit Corner Z.DBD to Top of Hearth --\ m - r/'dbd of / Grid Comer m.- X=A(cld) Y -X. DBD of Baseline Stratum Below Feature Featuro --j Thickness s W a $i 1 do XJ `d /-Baseline Stratum Y- (Z+W +X)sG Hearth Point of Origin Above Baseline Stratum m /- c

17 Though the calculation for positioning features relative to a baseline stratum is 17 precise, the accuracy of the positioning is only fair. The main measurements of the DBD used to create the baseline contain an inherent error. Using this method, each 1 x 1 grid unit is assumed to be level. This was not the case. Baseline stratum rippled considerably through its entire surface, containing numerous swells and basins within each unit. The combined error imposed by the undulating nature of stratum and that of the DBD being measured with a string line and small bubble level generates a relatively large cumulative error. When ever possible, feature superpositioning was relied upon for relative sequencing. Establishing The Relationship of Features The next step was to define the relationships between features. In applying the Harris Matrix to cover a large contiguous area that included a manmade stratum with inclusive manmade features rather than a single profile, minor adjustments to the matrix display were required. Using the law of superpositioning, small segments of the Harris Matrix were produced. These small segments were then combined to generate the Matrix of the entire site. The few features that were not superimposed or did not cut into other features were placed in sequence based entirely on their distance above or below the baseline stratum. These features' temporal placement is considered tentative. Once the features' locations relative to stratum baseline and to each other were established, features presumed to be in direct relationship were determined first. It was assumed that features in direct association were deposited during the same cultural event.

18 Specifically, when an individual was interred in a burial pit, a hearth was immediately 18 created directly over the covered burial pit (e.g., burial 41 and hearth 100) (FIG. 2). The direct sequential association of a hearth and burial pit was determined if the hearth was superimposed over the burial, either in part or in whole, and there was no indication of a continuous layer of stratum matrix separating the two features. These features together represent a single cultural event and comprised of several individual actions: pit cutting, burial, fill, and hearth. Those features deemed directly associated were placed on top of each other in relative order in the Harris Matrix. For example, hearth 105 is placed immediately above burial 38 and connected in the Matrix by a double vertical line indicating a direct association between the two features (FIG. 3). Several features were considered contemporaneous or at least could not be positioned sequentially to each other. Contemporaneous features were defined as those features that by superpositioning and/or their relative location to the baseline stratum appeared to be deposited at relatively the same time but were not in direct association with each other. In example, hearths 92 and 93 both superimpose over hearth 106 with a similar thickness of stratum between their point of origin and hearth 106's termination. They are not superimposed over each other, are not in direct association and are considered contemporaneous. Hearth 91 does not superimpose hearth 106 however it does appear to be contemporaneous with hearths 92 and 93. Those features presumed to be contemporaneous were placed next to each other in the Harris Matrix and recorded as in the same level of deposition (FIG. 4).

19 Figure 2. AutoCAD Direct Relationship of Burial 41 and Hearth It is presumed that hearths were never in direct association with each other; no two hearths superimposed on each other were used at the same time. A single vertical line connects hearths that were superimposed implying sequential occurrence. There were hearths that were immediately above one another with little or no matrix between them. For example, hearth 106 was directly over hearth 101 therefore a vertical line connects them (FIG. 4).

20 Figure 3. Harris Matrix Direct Relationship 20 Loosely following Paice (1991), an elongated superpositioning centerline was introduced to indicate the continuation of the recorded strata. In this way, the associated features (i.e., burial pits and hearths) could be properly related to the stratum they were introduced into thus providing a visual means of defining the activity level. A single vertical line connected blocks representing each stratum. Above the termination block of was placed a block representing the beginning of stratum 42. A single vertical line from the termination block of connected the termination of stratum 52 indicating stratum 21513's continuation (FIG. 5).

21 Figure 4. Harris Matrix of 91, 92, 93 and 106 Relationship 21 H90 H93 H92 H91 H106 H101 Features were positioned relatively between the strata blocks indicating that they began within that stratum. For example, burial 41 and hearth 100 are immediately above stratum 52. They were cut into stratum 52, however they originated from stratum The Harris Matrix blocks representing these features will be positioned between the blocks representing the termination of stratum , nearer the termination block of stratum 52 (FIG. 5). Figure 5 displays the completed Harris Matrix depicting the vertical relationship between the burials, hearths. For reference, numerical level designators have been placed on the right of the Matrix with a dashed line running through the Matrix to facilitate in

22 understanding the sequence of deposition. The distance between levels does not 22 indicate any relative thickness or time span in the levels. Posthole, Oyster Shell, Bead and Pebble Locations The distribution of postholes, oyster shells, beads and pebbles was plotted in relation to burials (FIGs. 6, 7, 8 & 9 respectively). Their location was derived from the unit forms they were located within and from the auxiliary form created at the end of the excavation. Their relative locations were recalculated into polar coordinates using grid corner B4 as the datum point to facilitate their entry into an AutoCAD2000 plan view. Groups of postholes were inferred to be the remains of some form of structure directly associated with individual features. In the 1999 excavations, there was only a single instance of an oyster shell in a burial (burial 26). Beads were only recorded within burial pits 34 and 35. Rocks of any type are scarce in the Jabuticabeira environment. The pebbles recorded in stratum appear to represent human introductions and were recovered from within burial pits and their immediate vicinity. During the 1997 season it was determined that when large rocks were recorded, they were generally in direct association to burials if not actually in the pit itself. In the 1999 season two large (approximately 45kg and 60kg) stones were recovered from within burial pits 37 and 34, respectively. These stones were worked and intentionally placed within the burial. Burial 38 had a much smaller unworked stone outside the pit near the head of the burial.

23 Figure 5. The Harris Matrix S H83 H76 S H96 H90 H93 H92 H91 B35 4 H106 HB4 H86 H88 H101 HC4B H8-9 H8-4 H102 H97 H99 H105 (B40) H94 HD5 HC4A H8-5 H95 (B34 H108 H107 CB3S) H100 1H109 S52 (1-42) B = Burial H = Hearth S = Stratum F = Defined Feature

24 Figure 6. Posthole and Burial Relationship 24

25 A Field Datum Point i B4H1 i//;r fa; - 0: i ik f - - Pebble Burials Hearths IIl o Feature Burial/Hearth Superposition Meter Grid r Locus Il Boundary Meters G F A N I H9

26 Figure 8. Oyster Shell and Burial Relationship 26

27 A Field Datum Point Shell Beads Burials 221 Hearths I III T Feature Burial/Hearth Superposition Meter Grid I Locus li Boundary Meters G F A N

28 28 Results /Discussion Two questions were originally posed for this report to answer. First, was there a direct relationship between the deposition of burials and hearths and second could a discrete activity area be identified from the sequence of feature deposition? Twelve levels of deposition were identified at JABII/LII. Figures 13a through 131 show plan views of their temporal sequence of. The Harris Matrix in Figure 5 shows these twelve levels of deposition in vertical sequence. Level 12 was designated the earliest level and level 1 the latest, most recent. Table 1 lists hearths and burials in chronological order. It was determined during the 1997 field season that hearths were always related to a burial. It is assumed in this report that all hearths were created because of a burial and are therefore related to a burial. Hearths that are defined herein to be in direct relationship to a burial indicate that the hearth was created immediately after a burial was covered; there is no matrix between the point of origin of the hearth and that of the burial and that these hearth and burial were created during a single cultural episode. The Direct Relationship Seven instances of a hearth and burial in direct relationship could be identified at JABI JLII. Only two burials were determined as not directly associated with a hearth (burials 35 and 37). Of the seven direct relationships, six were deposited within the earliest five levels (levels 12 through 8). The seventh (burial 26 and hearth 96) was deposited on level 2. All burials and hearths were associated within stratum Except for burial 34, burial pits were shallow and small in diameter. In the case of burial 26, the cranium of the body protruded above the top of the pit. Burial 34 is

29 problematic. It was heavily disturbed and its pit boundaries were difficult to identify. 29 The constricted nature of the burials suggests they may have been bound prior to burial, though no indication of binding was recovered. Burials were always flexed, with six out of the nine recorded as oriented with the head to the west/southwest (burials 26, 34, 36, 37, 40 and 41). Burials 38 and 42 were located by test trenching only, however their exact orientation can be confidently inferred. Burial 38 was cut through hearth 95 and into burial 34. Only the cranium was exposed. Had this burial been oriented any other way than west/southwest, its lower extremities would have been recovered during the excavation of burial 34. By similar assumption, burial 42's cranium was recorded north of burial 26 and beneath feature 109 during test trenching implying it too was oriented to the west/southwest. If burials 42 and 38 are included, only disassociated burial 35 was not oriented to the west/southwest. Burial 35 was also the only burial with two bodies. Both bodies were oriented to the northeast. Level 12 (FIG. 13A) contains burials 41 and 42 with associated hearths 100 and 109, respectively. Both of these events were cut into the upper surface of stratum 52 and covered with stratum Burial 42 was located by the relative location of a hearth 109 and several postholes. Test trenching was done to confirm its relative horizontal and vertical position. Burial 36 and associated hearth 107 were in level 11 (FIG. 13B). They were determined to be later than those in level 12 because of the thin amount of stratum matrix between the bottom of burial pit 36 and the upper termination of stratum 52. Level 10 (FIG. 13C) contained burial 34 and associated hearth 95. There was no stratum matrix between the remains of hearth 95 and what was perceived as the point of

30 30 origin of burial pit 34. The temporal placement of these features is tentative due to the heavily disturbed nature of burial pit 34 and the scant remains of hearth 95. Placement was determined by the fact that burials 40 and 38 (level 8) cut into burial pit 34 and that this burial pit cuts into burial pit 41 (level 12). Level 9 (FIG. 13D) contained four hearths and a single burial. The temporal sequence of these features was determined by their similar relative position to the beginning of stratum In addition, hearths 102 and C4B where superimposed by hearths 94 and C4A, respectively. Level 8 (FIG. 13E) contained burials 40 and 38 with associated hearths 99 and 105, respectively. Both burials were cut into burial pit 34 and had a greater distance between their point of origin and the lower termination of stratum Burial 38 was located by the relative location of hearth 105 and several postholes. Levels 7 through 3 (FIGs. 13F through 13J) contain fourteen hearths. Three of these, D5, 85 and 86, were disjoined and in no apparent behavioral association with any other feature. The remaining hearths were superimposed over at least one other hearth. The single burial recorded within these levels, burial 35 in level 4, is also unassociated. This burial was also the only double burial encountered at JABII/LII. It contained an adult female and an infant. There were numerous shell beads within the burial pit. Their locations near the neck area and near the left hand suggest they are the remains of a necklace and bracelet or other personal adornment. Level 2 (FIG. 13K) contained burial 26 overlaid by hearth 96. Burial 26 was cut into the upper termination of stratum with hearth 96 resting on top of this stratum, but prior to any deposit of stratum 42. There was no evidence of stratum 42 matrix

31 between burial and hearth. Level 1, the most recent level, contained only two small 31 hearths. Hearth 83 was partially over burial 26 and hearth 76 was directly south. Both hearths in level 1 (FIG 13L) were considered to be later deposits than burial 26 and hearth 96 due to the composition of the matrix directly below them. Hearths 76 and 83 did not rest directly on the upper termination interface of stratum , but had a thin, loose, white sandy matrix below their point of origin. This sandy matrix rested partially on feature 77. Burial 26 cut into the north edge of feature 77 with no evidence of stratum 42 between them. This implies feature 77 was deposited prior to burial 26. Hearths 76 and 83 must have been deposited after burial 26, but prior to the beginning of stratum 42 since no stratum 42 matrix was recorded between heaths 76 and 83 and the upper termination of stratum The seven direct burial and hearth relationships were determined by the lack of stratum matrix between their points of origin and the hearth overlapping, either in part or in whole, over the burial pit. This assumption of relationship was further solidified when burials 38 and 42 were predicted by the location of hearths 109 and 105 and the relative location of postholes. If the hearth was not used immediately after the burial was filled, and there had been a short lapse of time between the deposition of the burial and the deposition of the hearth there would have been at least a thin layer of a different matrix between the two. As noted, there was no indication of this thin layer. Six of the seven hearths in direct burial association are lenticular in shape. The seventh, hearth 95, was too disturbed to determine its shape. Twelve of the total twenty - eight hearths were lenticular in shape and appear to have been built on top of the current surface. Thirteen were shaped like shallow basins and were cut into the existing matrix.

32 In most instances (14, n =21) those hearths not determined to be in direct association 32 with a burial were superimposed over another hearth. All except hearth 84 were located in the northwest half of the excavation area where all the burials were located. Hearth 84 was thin and it was difficult to discern its extent or shape. The shapes of hearths 95 and B4 were also indeterminate. See Tables 2 and 3 for a complete description of burials and hearths. Given the high frequency of hearth and burial direct relationships (7, n =9 burials) and the paucity of hearths outside of the general local of the burials, it is reasonable to presume that all hearths were in someway associated with a burial. Most certainly those hearths directly over the burials with no intruding stratum matrix between them were created immediately after the burial was covered.

33 Table 11. Deposition Sequence 33 Level Direct Relationships Individual Hearths Individual Burials Beginning of Stratum and 76 2 Burial 26/Hearth 96 Termination of Stratum , 92, , 88, 86, B , 89, 84, C4B and 97 8 Burial 40/Hearth 99 Burial 38 /Hearth , 85, D5, C4A Burial 34/Hearth Burial 36/Hearth Burial 42 /Hearth 109 Burial 41/Hearth 100 Termination of Stratum 52 - Beginning of Stratum

34 Burial Number Description Burial 26 The pit was cut into feature 77 and was insufficient to cover the burial. The cranium appeared at the termination of and was crushed, possibly due to trampling since it was in such a shallow grave. Burial 34 Burial 34 was heavily disturbed making its relative location problematic but appears to terminate above stratum 52. There was evidence of matrix from below the pit. There was a large, approximately 45kg, pecked stone placed on top of the cranium. The stone showed evidence of use -wear on one side; this side was face down. There were shell beads dispersed in this burial. What type of personal adornment, if any, they may have been associated with is indeterminate. Burial 35 Apparently unassociated with any other recorded feature, this burial was the only double burial encountered, contained an adult female and an infant. There were several shell beads and their location suggests the beads were a necklace and bracelet on the female adult. Burial 36 The pit outline for burial 36 was originally recorded as feature 104. The burial pit rested on a thin layer of stratum , above stratum 52 and directly below hearth 107. Burial 37 This burial was small and shallow, approximately 25cm in diameter and 15cm deep. There was a large, approximately 65kg, shaped groundstone placed on top of the cranium.

35 Burial Number Description Burial 38 The pit for burial 38 is cut into burial 34 and is immediately under hearth 105. This burial was predicted based on the relative location of hearth 105 and postholes. Only a 10cm circular test excavation was done to verify the burial's location. Burial 40 The pit cuts into the western edge of burial 34's pit and is immediately under hearth 99. Burial 41 The pit for this burial was cut into stratum 52 with hearth 100 laid directly over top and stratum built up around it. Burial 42 Originally described as feature 98, it is directly under hearth 109 and cut into stratum 52. This burial was predicted based on the relative location of hearth 109 and postholes. A test trench approximately 10cm x 40cm along a north to south axis was used to confirm the location.

36 Feature Number Description Feature 75 A long, 2.5m south to north, light reddish brown fish scale deposit. Slopes down from near the termination of in unit C6, to the beginning of in unit E6. Hearth 76 A small, contained hearth, approximately 6cm diameter, with a hard packed reddish clay upper layer resting on top of a loose packed, light colored sand pillar. The pillar was approximately 2cm thick and rested on top of the loose shell matrix of feature 77 Feature 77 A well- defined very loose shell and white sand matrix, running east to west, approximately 1.5m long. Hearth 83 A small contained hearth similar to hearth 76 including the clay upper layer and loose sand pillar superimposed over burial 26. Hearth 84 A thin, dispersed burnt area extending through much of grid unit B2, fading to nothing at its northern edge. The northern half is denser and defined as a hearth. Hearth 85 A small, approximately 20cm in diameter, lenticular hearth comprised of successive layers of ash, charcoal, fish bone and burned shell and sand. Does not appear to be directly associated with any other feature.

37 Feature Number Description Hearth 86 A very small, 12cm diameter, contained hearth with no apparent association to other recorded features. Above this hearth was a large quantity of ashy soil and charcoal with no discernible pattern. Hearth 88 A lenticular hearth superimposed directly over hearth 89. It had a hard crusty white to gray surface and approximately 64cm in diameter and 7cm thick. Hearth 89 A large lenticular hearth, approximately 60cm diameter and 8cm thick, with a hard surface. Only the eastern portion of this hearth that was in the excavation area was exposed. Hearth 90 A large, approximately 80cm in diameter, lenticular hearth. The lower portion of its southern edge is cut into hearth 95. Hearth 91 A contained hearth, 2cm thick, 60cm diameter, which superimposes 105 on 105's extreme southern tip. There is a brown sand and crushed shell matrix between the two. Hearth 92 A contained hearth 3cm thick, 60cm diameter, superimposed over 105. Also has the black sand and crushed shell matrix between the two. The content of the hearth was a light gray ash and sand composing in the upper portion and burned black sand near the bottom.

38 Feature Number Description Hearth 93 A contained hearth with its southern most edge superimposed over 106. There is a black sand and crushed shell matrix between this hearth and 106, similar to that between 106 and 94. Hearth 94 A contained hearth, 3mc thick, 40cm diameter, north and approximately 4cm above burial 42 and hearth 100. It is not directly associated with either. Hearth 95 Only a small 4cm thick arc along the west edge of grid unit E4 remains. The remains are directly over burial 34 with no apparent fill between. Hearth 96 A very shallow, lenticular hearth partially covering the northwestern edge of burial pit 26. Hearth 97 A lenticular hearth with the northeast edge superimposed over hearth 108. Hearth 99 A lenticular hearth that completely covers burial 40. Hearth 100 A small, approximately 20cm in diameter, lenticular hearth directly over burial 41. Hearth 101 A small, approximately 20cm diameter and 5cm deep, contained hearth with a burned flat bottom and vertical sides that was cut directly into hearth 102.

39 Feature Number Description Hearth 102 A contained hearth with the north half superimposed over hearth 94. Hearth 105 A lenticular hearth following the slope of the site to the northwest. Only the very western edge superimposes the test excavation of burial 38. Hearth 106 A contained hearth superimposed over hearths 94, 100, 101 and 102. Between the bottom of this hearth and the top of 94 are 3cms of black sand and crushed shell matrix. This matrix is not greasy and has a course sandy texture. Between this hearth and hearths 100, 101 and 102 is the standard matrix of stratum Hearth cm thick lenticular hearth terminating directly on top of burial 36. The pit of burial 36 was not completely filled and hearth 107 dips into the partially filled burial pit Hearth 108 This is a lenticular hearth; 2cm thick superimposed over the west half of hearth 109 with a hard clayey matrix between the two. This hearth does not slope as 109 does, but is level. Hearth 109 A 3cm thick lenticular hearth following the slope of stratum 52 to the north. Located directly on top of burial 42 and resting on top of stratum 52.

40 Feature Number Description Hearth B4 A small dispersed hearth terminating just above hearth C4B. It is similar in composition to both C4A and C4B with a large quantity of ashy soil and charcoal with a hard crusty surface. Hearth C4B A circular contained hearth that terminates on top of C4A. There is a dense concentration of unidentified and unburned bird bones on the northern tip of this hearth and on the extending portion of C4A. Hearth C4A A large heavily burned contained hearth, 1.3m north to south and 25cm east to west, 8cm thick. Large amounts of white ashy soil and charcoal under a hard crusty surface. Along the northeastern edge there was a small pit with a calcined oyster shell, dish up with a hole in the center. Hearth D5 A small, contained hearth, approximately 25cm in diameter, with a hard packed clayey surface similar to features 76 and 83 without the loose packed, light colored sand pillar below it. Slopes south to north with a large amount of dispersed dark, ashy soil above the outline of the hearth.

41 Evidence for a Single Activity Level 41 All burials and hearths excavated at JABII/LII were within the boundaries of stratum The earliest recorded burials, 41 and 42, are clearly cut into the upper termination of stratum 52. Their associated hearths, 100 and 109 respectively, are directly over the surface or partially cut into the termination of stratum 52. Stratum was built up around them. There was no evidence of stratum 52 matrix between the points of origin of these directly associated hearths and burials. The most recent hearths recorded at JABII/LII are also within the bounds of stratum Hearths 83, 76 and 96 are above the termination of , however, no matrix from the subsequent stratum 42 was identified between the points of origin of these hearths and that of the termination of Stratum 42 was deposited after these hearths. Large quantities of fish remains were recovered during water screening of the excavated matrix. Final analysis of the 1999 data has not been completed; however, preliminary analysis of the faunal remains from stratum 42 and , table 4, shows significant differences in quantities of fish remains (Danielle Klokler, personal communication 2000). Table 4. Faunal Remains Stratum 42 Stratum Fish Bone 2% 14% Shell 89.6% 53.3% Mammal and Bird 8.4% 32.7%

42 Figure 10. JABII /LII 42 Photo by P. Pilles Several 103cm samples of matrix were randomly taken from the profiles of strata 215A3 and 42 during the 1997 season. Table 5 shows the number of otoliths (ear bones) in these samples. The increased minimum number of individuals implies considerably more human discard activity on stratum than 42. Otoliths were noticeably abundant during the 1999 excavation. A single three -liter bucket from stratum contained over 75 otoliths from grid unit C5. Both tables 4 and 5 indicate an increase in fish, mammal and bird exploitation implying a general increase in human activity in stratum

43 Table 5. Otolith MNI 43 Species Stratum 42 Stratum Micropogonias furnieri 3 9 Ariidae 1 11 Pogonias chromis 0 3 Scinoscion leiarchus 0 1 Due to the paucity of rocks not only in the site but also in the surrounding area, all rocks found in JABI JLII were point provenienced. The majority of these were small pebbles and located in close proximity to burials (FIG. 8). The densest concentration however, was recorded in grid unit C6. They seemed to be encircled by features D5, C4A, C4B, B4 and 88. This area also contained a concentration of ash dumpings. It is possible that a burial did exist immediately to the southwest of feature C4A but had been removed during historic commercial activity. Burials 37 and 34 contained large (45kg & 60kg respectively) rocks of mostly natural shape with grinding modifications (FIG. 11). Burial 38 had a much smaller, unmodified rock immediately north of the burial pit. Both groundstone artifacts from burials 37 and 34 were pecked and shaped; dished on the top and formed on the bottom side and were placed top down on the craniums. Grinding stones are a typical part of sambaqui grave assemblages throughout the region. They were recovered in several instances from JABII burials excavated in previous seasons at Locus I.

44 Figure 11. Burials 34, 37 and Photo by P. Pilles The numerous postholes that were present were of various sizes. Overall, the postholes ranged in diameter from 3cm to 23cm with the majority of them (57 %) between 6cm and 9cm and an average of 7.35 (n =317). Range in depth varied significantly from 4cm to 63cm with 41% between 8cm and 16cm, 46% between 16cm and 69cm and an average of 18.79cm (n -317). Figure 6 clearly displays postholes positioned over the entire site and clustered around the burial and hearths. Formal analysis has not been conducted on the postholes' relative position to recorded features in stratum However, in -field observation clearly discerned a temporal and spatial relationship between specific postholes, hearths and burials. The last two recorded burials, 38 and 42, were located based on this observed temporal and

45 spatial relationship of the hearths directly associated with these burials, 105 and respectively, and the perceived pattern of postholes surrounding the hearths. Further research on posthole configurations is necessary, however initial analysis suggests they were not the remains of a habitation structure. Their function is as yet indeterminate other then their obvious association with burials and hearths. The lack of habitation evidence, (i.e., habitation structures or floors, the paucity of household artifacts) and the commonality of burials in not only JABII/LII but within the sambaqui in general confirm the area was used as a graveyard. Cultural and stratigraphic evidence supports the conclusion that stratum in Locus II at Jabuticabeira II was an activity level of short duration. The stratum is thin, averaging just 13cm in thickness. There is no evidence of intrusive natural strata being deposited between the depositions of groups of burials or hearths indicating there was no significant lapse in time between the internment of the first burial and the last. The evidence also implies that neither stratum 42 or 52 were activity levels. There was no indication of dark ashy soil or burials in either

46 Field Datum Point 7.31 meters Stratum Stratum _ I Stratum 52/ Stratum 42 Stratum 42 -`- R-T ,`. - - T:: tar' 111:WW L Southern ro e

47 E--- --I G I I I I I I I I - B4 F f- F- A Feld Datum Point Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & Burial4l /Hearth 100 Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface L Burials VA Hearths m I Feature Burial /Hearth Superposition Meter Grid I _ Locus II Boundary Meters A I I I I I I I

48 A Field Datum Point Level 11 - Burial 36/Hearth 107 Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & Burial4l /Hearth 100 Stratum /Stratum 52 Interlace Burials Hearths I IlI Feature I Burial/Hearth Superposition i -- 1 Meter Grid 0.5. Locus II Boundary Meters A F 0

49 I I= I a, I = I o I I I I I I, I I f I te Figure 13c. Level w o U r T , T T - - I I I i I I i I I I i I I I I I I I i I I I N I I, I I, } I I, I 1 lit C7 I I I a v 2 I ' I i I <4, /i ': I 1 1 I I m i I 14, I i I I I I I I I,. I,./, , I CO LIIt$tI ö I I M I r- m ---+ _ ó =1 1 z... E(9MI 4iE 10 C L C Ñ E 522 M av Ñ "Pa To To To Ci..- -o 7 7 m ) N L: oe

50 H 1 0 ;.7424 r - A Field Datum Point Level 9 - Burial 37 & Hearths 94, D5, C4A & 85 Level 10 - Burial 34 /Hearth 95 & Hearth 108 Level 11 - Burial 36/Hearth 107 Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & Burial4l /Hearth 100 Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface 8 7 Burials Hearths III L - Feature I Burial/Hearth Superposition Meter Grid i `- Locus Il Boundary Meters G F A CD

51 Field Datum Point Burials Hearths m Feature Level 8 - Burial 38/Hearth 105 & Burial 40 /Hearth 99.%i Burial/Hearth Superposition 1 Level 9 - Burial 37 & Hearths 94, D5, C4A & 85 - _ 1 Meter Grid Level 11 - Burial 36/Hearth 107 ` Locus Il Boundary Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & BuriaI4l /Hearth 100 o.s o Meters Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface Level 10 - Burial 34/Hearth 95 & Hearth 108 l A JJ I

52 Field Datum Point Burials Hearths Level 7 - Hearths 97 & 102 m Feature I Level 8 - Burial 38/Hearth 105 & Burial 40 /Hearth 99!%i Burial/Hearth Superposition I Level 9 - Burial 37 & Hearths 94, D5, C4A & Meter Grid Level 10 - Burial 34 /Hearth 95 & Hearth 108 i - - Level 11 - Burial 36/Hearth 107 Locus II Boundary Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & BuriaI41 /Hearth Meters Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface L G F A

53 V Z E 9 9 L 8 sielew 0 so igepuno8 II srxlol PPO-181aWI-- d wnieq Jepd UOplSOdiednS 41JeaHl!eun8 a.1rqead meting III slpjebh KA aoepalul Z4 wn1eas/ L.9LZ weis eaH/L41eun8'8 60l 43ieaH/Z4 IBM] - ZL Ianal LOL 4L1eaH/9 leun8 - LL lanan 90L 4NeaH' ie0H/4 leun8 - OL lena-1 99 '8 V40 '90 '46 S4PeaH '8 LE leun8-61anal eaH/04 leun8'8 SOL 41JeaH/9 leun8-8 lana-1 WL '8 L6 s4neah -L lana LOL '8 81{0 '68 '49 S4ueaH - 9 lanai Lubd wnaeq Pla!d / d!1 6H _ "rt4-4-/, ' O I H 48 o

54 A Field Datum Point Leve Leve Leve Leve Leve Leve 5 - Hearths 86, 88, B4 & Hearths 84, 89, C4B & Hearths 97 & Burial 38/Hearth 105 & Burial 40 /Hearth Burial 37 & Hearths 94, D5, C4A & Burial 34/Hearth 95 & Hearth Burial 36/Hearth 107 Leve Leve 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & BuriaI41 /Hearth 100 Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface Burials Hearths [I] Feature Burial/Hearth Superposition - 1 Meter Gild Locus Il Boundary Meters F A

55 Field Datum Point Level 4 - Burial 35, Hearths 91, 92 & 93, & Feature 75 Level 5 - Hearths 86, 88, B4 & 106 Level 6 - Hearths 84, 89, C4B & 101 Level 7 - Hearths 97 & 102 Level 8 - Burial 38/Hearth 105 & Burial 40 /Hearth 99 Level 9 - Burial 37 & Hearths 94, D5, C4A & 85 Level 10 - Burial 34 /Hearth 95 & Hearth 108 Level 11 - Burial 36/Hearth 107 Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & Burial4l /Hearth 100 Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface Burials Hearths m Feature Burial/Hearth Superposition Meter Grid - Locus Il Boundary , G F B A JJ

56 A Field Datum Point Level 3 - Hearth 90 & Feature 77 Level 4 - Burial 35, Hearths 91, 92 & 93, & Feature 75 Level 5 - Hearths 86, 88, B4 & 106 Level 6 - Hearths 84, 89, C4B & 101 Level 7 - Hearths 97 & 102 Level 8 - Burial 38/Hearth 105 & Burial 40 /Hearth 99 Level 9 - Burial 37 & Hearths 94, D5, C4A & 85 Level 10 - Burial 34/Hearth 95 & Hearth 108 Level 11 - Burial 36/Hearth 107 Level 12 - Burial 42/Hearth 109 & Burial4l /Hearth 100 Stratum /Stratum 52 Interface Burials I 1 I Hearths Feature L - - Burial/Hearth Superposition Meter Grid - Locus II Boundary Meters G F A

57 Figure 13k. Level 2 57 C9 LL Lu U m r-- (V C) LI1 L -,r --.. \+\ '\\5.. :. 1-1, 1/4-N, _ ö1' il = n L 1 z > > > > > > > > > > m J J J J J J J J J J J V)

58 I sypeah V d S Mlayy 6 9' igepunog II mom P l - I uogisodiadns ypeahneun8 amwaj m 174 sleuna 9 L 8 aoeyalui ZS wrqej1s/e L"S LZ wn1ej1s OOL 411eaH/L41eun8'8 60L 41JeaH24 IeunB - ZL lana-1 L01. 41Je8H/9E Ieun6 - L l Ianal 80L 41JeaH ' JeaH/4E IeunB - OL lanal 58 8 VYJ 'Sa '46 s41jeah'8 LE IeunB - 6 I0n lJeaH/04 Ieune'8 SOL 41ieaH/8E IeunB - g lanai ZO L '8 L6 s4}jeah - L lanai LOI. V 94'3 `68 '48 s43jeah - 9 I0n '8 4E1'88 '98 s41jeah - g I0na1 SL ajnleaj +8 ' 6 Z6 '1.6 s4yeah '9 Ieun9-4 lana LL ajnlea j "a 06 41Je8H - E lana-i 96 41JeaH/9Z leung - Z lanal 8'8 9L syljeah - l lana apeljalel L'SLZ wn1ej1s/z4 wn1ej1s ` ubd wne0 Rau 00 4 ill *rj+w, 1ji1 pt.,,,,,, E8 `a -`íl' G. mitt ;,j!,.6h,i i///o:'_ 0 1.H it.i-...-//! - '//, i//io%/ be '-' :!!ü J

59 59 Conclusion The evidence presented above clearly identifies Jabuticubeira II, Locus II as a burial ground. It further supports the 1997 field season's certainty that the hearths, postholes and burials were all directly related to each other. The profile shown if Figure 12 reveals several other earlier strata which appear to be similar in nature to stratum (e.g., stratums and 215.5) in that they contain numerous burials, postholes and hearth in apparent direct association with each other. It can also be presumed that stratum was occupied and used for a short period of time. The stratum is homogenous in that there are no intruding natural strata that would have resulted from colluvial processes if the level had been used sporadically over a long period of time for short durations at a time. Stratum was used regularly over a short period of time. As stated at the outset, this report should be the impetus of future research into the cultural significance of the Brazilian sambaquis. Future research could focus on why an estimated 43,000 individuals are interred here (Fish et al 1998). The sheer numbers of burials estimated to exist in JABII suggests this was a burial ground for all members of the population using this area. When funerary accompaniments were present, they were not elaborate. Burial 34 contained both a large worked rock and numerous beads. Burial 35 contained two deceased and with beads but no worked rocks. This does not provide strong evidence for social inequality however; previous research (Fish et al 1998: 97-98) has provided stronger arguments for the presences of inequality in funerary accompaniments in the sambaquis.

60 If it is accepted that JABII/LII is a burial ground that was visited regularly for 60 a short duration of time, where did the populations come from? There have been no habitation sites identified in the vicinity of JABII/LII. Were the deceased preserved somehow and then transported during regular pilgrimages organized specifically to bury the deceased? If they were, why was there no evidence of binding within the nine inhumations excavated at JABII/LII? Of interest also is the apparent sandwiching of activity levels. Each activity level identified in profile is preceded and followed by a considerably thicker stratum of apparent inactivity. Why was there this relatively lengthy lapse in activity of the area? The detailed chronology for the horizontal excavation of the sambaqui should also be extended. The excavations during 1999 in JABII/LII represent 32 square meters of nearly 83,000 square meters (Gaspar 1998) of one sambaqui amongst numerous sambaquis identified throughout the coast of Brazil. It is evident from the numerous hearths not in direct physical contact with a burial (21, n =28), but which their association is implied by superpositioning and proximity to the burials and postholes, that JABII/LII was visited regularly. Many of the regular visits may have been for repetitive ceremonial purposes in honor of the dead. Why the hearths were created in direct association with a burial is undeterminable at this time. The hearth could have been used for anything from feasting to burning special ritual vegetation immediately after interment. Research thus far has but scratched the surface. The results from this work have provided a clearer picture of the sequence of cultural deposition and the probable use of Jabuticubeira II, Locus II. Though considerable research has been done on Brazilian

61 Sambaquis, considerably more is necessary to clarify their cultural significance and to 61 further our understanding of the people responsible for their construction. Acknowledgements First and foremost I wish to thank my thesis committee. Drs. Paul and Suzy Fish for allowing me to work with them on the Sambaqui Project and entrusting me with this analysis. Dr. Chuck Bollong, who had confidence in me long before I realized archaeology was what I wanted to do. All three have provided me an immeasurable amount of guidance, patience, knowledge and support that have made the completion of this report possible. Beth Grindell who spent numerous hours helping me with my writing and whose friendship and advice I could not have done without. Peter Pillis and Anne Worthington for an untold number of hours counting and recording postholes and for sharing several bottles of Fine Brazilian Wine with me. Madu, Paulo, Dani, Levi, Marcia, Dania and the rest of the Brazilian crew for their companionship and laughter. Special thanks for Dani for the use of her heater and her assistance with the faunal data. Shannon Plummer and Jennifer Sigler who listened when I needed to talk, talked when I needed to listen and supported when I needed the help. Two finer beer -drinking buddies I have never had.

62 Appendix A - Stratum Depth Below Datum Grid S 42 S S 52 S42 Thickness S Thickness Al A B B B B B Cl C C C C C C D D D D D D D El E E E E E E F F F F F F F G G G G G Average

63 ID PH Num Dia in cm Starting DBD Terminal DBD Depth in cm Polar Coordinate Degrees Dist in Meters I

64 ID PH Num Dia in cm Starting DBD Terminal DBD Depth in cm Polar Coordinate Degrees Dist in Meters

65 ID PH Num Dia in cm Starting DBD Terminal DBD Depth in cm Polar Coordinate Degrees Dist in Meters