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Transcription

1 Vermeersch P.M. & E. Paulissen & D. Huyge, Makhadma 2, An Esnan Site, in Pierre M. Vermeersch (Ed.), Palaeolithic Living Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt. Leuven, Leuven University Press: $.+$'0$$1(61$16,7( Pierre M. Vermeersch, Etienne Paulissen & Dirk Huyge of its excavation. 6LWHSRVLWLRQ Makhadma 2 (fig. 2.2) is situated on the lower portion of a slope (fig. 9.1: 1), between the entrance of wadi Makhadma and the valley scarp facing towards the Nile. The slope is capped with a gravel deposit belonging to a large wadi terrace. Wadi Makhadma, with its large flat bottom, has a mean slope of 1%, building up a large sandy cone over the Shuwikhat terrace. The site was discovered in a quarry face (fig. 9.2). Inside the quarry only a small part of the site has been preserved, suggesting that the site was originally larger than what remained on the untouched slope at the time ([FDYDWLRQ We utilised the grid system that was laid out in the area (cf p. 78). Excavations started from the quarry face along which an excavation trench was opened. When the archaeological layer (fig. 9.3, unit C) was attained, it was cleared by troweling. All artefacts from the archaeological layer were plotted on plans and their depth registered. The larger faunal remains were collected and recorded per square. Most small fish remains were gathered by using a 0.25 mm mesh screen. Square 16N1E was not excavated but preserved as a Figure Geomorphological map of the Makhadma area 1: terraces culminating at 16 m above the floodplain; 2: terrace culminating at 10 m above the floodplain; 3: pediments and wadi deposit at 2-4 m above the floodplain; Figure 9.1 4: Shuwikhat - Geomorphological terrace; 5: floodplain. map of the Makhadma area 1: terraces higher than 90 m a.s.l.; 2: terraces higher than 80 m; 3: pediments and wadi deposits at m; 4: Shuwikhat terrace; 5: floodplain; Position of Makhadma 2 and 4 is indicated on the map 211

2 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge Figure Lay out of the excavation trenches in the quarry 1: excavated; 2: quarry stratigraphical reference. On the footslope, a trench was cut in order to observe the contact zone between the slope deposits and the Nile deposits. 6LWHVWUDWLJUDSK\ Due to quarrying activity and erosion, less than 15 m² of the site has been preserved. Therefore, the excavation surface was limited. The profile along the quarry face gave us the possibility to study the sediment succession within squares 10-22N0E (fig. 9.6). On the lower part of the slope, the LQVLWX coarse fluvial sands, attributed to the Qena sands (A), are covered with a heterogeneous non-stratified slope deposit (B2) of coarse sands, pebbles and cobbles derived from the local terrace gravels and the underlying Qena sands. Rolled Middle Palaeolithic and Late Palaeolithic (?) artefacts seem to be randomly (fig. Figure Stratigraphy of the contactzone between the footslope and the river Nile deposits 212

3 9 - MAKHADMA 2, AN ESNAN SITE Figure View towards the quarry with Makhadma ) distributed in the deposit. In places, the B2- deposit rests on stratified sandy and gravely slope deposits (B1 and B3), truncating them. Upslope, the B- slope deposit reaches a thickness of 1 m but thins out rapidly downslope. This sequence was studied at a quarry face in 21N2-5E (fig. 9.5). Here the archaeological layer (C) is wedged in-between two series of slope deposits, B and D, but thins out upslope. Within slope deposit B occasional Palaeolithic artefacts were found. Artefacts were also found in unit D that rapidly increases in thickness in an upslope direction. Small rills, still visible on the surface, are characteristic of unit D, which is very sandy and has a maximum thickness of 0.30 m. On top of these deposits a light brown desert soil developed, suggesting a stabilised slope for quite some time, probably since the early Holocene. This is corroborated with the black desert varnish present on the exposed face of the desert pavement cobbles covering the slope. The artefact-bearing layer (C) has a variable thickness: about 5 cm downslope, reaching up to 12 cm in the upslope portion of the site. On the northern slope the archaeological layer is becomes poor in artefacts and other remains. The archaeological layer is very Figure Stratigraphy of the site at 21N2-5E 213

4 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge 214 Figure Profile along the quarry face l: Qena sands in situ; 2: reworked Qena sands; 3: topsoil of fine brown sands; 4: rubble; 5: pebbles; 6: gravels or gravely coarse sands; 7: weathered cobbles; 8: coarse stratified sands; 9: loose grey powdery silts containing artefacts and faunal remains; 10: loose black powdery silts containing artefacts and faunal remains; 11: calcrete; 12: fine wedges; 13: deep fine wedges, partly filled up; 14: bioturbation.

5 9 - MAKHADMA 2, AN ESNAN SITE powdery and contains numerous cobbles. It is black in colour due to an admixture of Nile silts and fine charcoal particles. It is also rich in other organics, most of which are heavily weathered. Most fish and mammal bones appear as whitish stains in which occasionally some bone tissue can be recognised. Luckily, small bone fragments are still in a reasonable condition of preservation. Artefacts were found throughout the whole thickness of the deposit, together with many cobbles. The black layer thins out in the southern and eastern directions, resulting in a rather restricted area where it was well preserved: only m². Basically, the archaeological layer displays a lateral transition from black to brown and from a very powdery to a more sandy texture. The thickness of the archaeological layer was clearly reduced due to erosion by slope processes, resulting in the deposition of unit D. This situation implies that the horizontal and vertical distribution of the archaeological material is no longer the original one. Very often a salt deposit capped the archaeological black objects. On the lower part of the slope a slightly consolidated calcrete developed. On several occasions, burrowing animals have disturbed the contact zone between the archaeological layer and slope deposits. It seems that the archaeological layer had attracted such animals. The trench 0E1N-8S (fig. 9.3) together with the survey pits in 0E15-16S and 0E73-75S revealed that the LQVLWX Qena sands (A) have been eroded between 3S and 6S. There, the lower slope deposits (B), containing redeposited Palaeolithic artefacts, became thicker. At 0E1S a rill, now filled with gravel, eroded down into the Qena sands. Further south the slope deposits become reduced to a single gravel lag layer, resting upon the Shuwikhat silts (H), which form the Shuwikhat terrace. The B-deposits have been overlaid by a black clay (F) which, in the north (0E0S), is eroded and replaced by local wadi sands. The clay deposit reaches a maximum elevation of 75 m a.s.l., being 4 m above the floodplain. Its northern part is rich in charcoal. Artefacts were mainly found at its base, but some were found inside the clay deposit. Within the clay deposits clear indications of rubified deposits have been found, suggesting the presence of hearths. Charcoal from the hearths has been dated to ± 280 BP (GrN-12029), suggesting a contemporaneity between the occupation on the slope and the deposition of the top of the black clay. The upper part of this black clay is very rich in &RUELFXODFRQVREULQD shells. At the outer edge of the clay deposits numerous large cobbles were found, possibly used as netting weights. This deposit has been identified as belonging to the Sheikh Houssein Formation (cf chapter 2). Numerous desiccation cracks starting from the clay surface and from a lower level within the clay unit indicate intermittent deposition. The top of the Sheikh Houssein silt is characterised by a new lag deposit, suggesting erosion of the top of these clays. This erosion was apparently initiated by wadi activity as stratified sands, in which several lag deposit layers are distinguished, cover the clay. The upper deposit is subdivided into three units: the lower (E1) of clearly fluviatile origin with some rills, a second fine sandy deposit (E2) more likely related to an aeolian accumulation and a final thick gravely lag deposit forming the present desert pavement (E3). A brown desert soil has formed over the whole series, corresponding to the Holocene soil. From the profiles it can be deduced that the occupation was contemporaneous with the earlier period of the Sheikh Houssein silt deposition. Clay aggregates have been transported from the floodplain to the site, highly contaminating the sandy deposits on the slope with clayey deposits from the floodplain. This clay contamination is attributed to the trampling by occupants of the site walking from the wet clayey floodplain to the dry living site on the slope. 3RVWKROHV 6WUXFWXUHV The horizontal distribution of the archaeological material is represented in figure 9.9. On the plan the line with number 14 in the legend indicates the limit of the non-eroded archaeological layer, in which archaeological material was abundant. Outside this area and to the south, the archaeological layer rapidly thinned out, leaving only the lower archaeological deposits. To the north, archaeological material became rare and more scattered within the thicker archaeological layer. 215

6 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge Two postholes have been found. The first, located at 16-17N0E, has been only partially preserved. Its diameter is about 50 cm and its base is rounded. It is filled with blackish sand, rich in fish bones. A few chert flakes and chips and numerous cobbles were also found within. The cobbles may have been dumped in intentionally. This is unclear, however, as similar cobbles do occur in the slope deposits. Unfortunately, quarry activity prevented an observation of the upper part of this posthole and its relation to the archaeological layer. If one assumes that the posthole started from the archaeological layer, which is plausible, it was 0.80 m deep. A second posthole, found in 16-17N2E, has been well preserved. It is conical in shape and filled with brown organic sand containing numerous fish bones. Many cobbles were also found, apparently intended as consolidation for a post. Its largest diameter is about 42 cm. The top of the hole has been blurred by a large hearth construction. Originally, the posthole had a depth of 0.65 m. +HDUWKV Two hearths were discovered: the frist was wellpreserved in 16N2E and while another was subjected to Figure Profile Figure View of the excavation from the west 216

7 9 - MAKHADMA 2, AN ESNAN SITE severe erosion in 13N1E. Both hearths consist of an accumulation of charcoal, organic material and ashes, resting on rubified sand at the base of the archaeological layer. Burnt bones and stone fragments are frequent in the very powdery ashes. The charcoal is often in a powdery condition. The hearth (2E) in 16N2E was built up partly above the posthole; thus the latter was out of use when the hearth was in use. Its diameter was about 0.4 m. It has been consolidated by irregular calcite accumulations. The construction of the hearth consists of a shallow (about 8 cm) pit. Numerous burnt cobbles have been found, but do not display a specific layout. Charcoal from this hearth was dated to 12,270 ± 100 (GrN ). Posterior slope deposits destroyed the upper part of the hearth (1E) in 13N1E. The diameter of the preserved part is about 0.15 m. There was no indication of its construction but it seems to be simply composed of a charcoal and organic material accumulation. Charcoal from this hearth dates to 13,330 ± 170 (GrN-12031). Judging from the general scattered distribution of charcoal, it seems that fire has been intensively used at the site. ±+RUL]RQWDOGLVWULEXWLRQ The artefacts were spread throughout the whole thickness of the archaeological layer (fig. 9.7), with a slight concentration in 17-18N1E and 17N2E, suggesting multiple occupations of the site with a slow accumulation of settlement debris, but eventually also the effects of trampling and reworking by slope wash. There was no obvious relation between the hearths and the postholes. If we consider the hearth in 16-17N2E a central place within the settlement the cores then take on a peripheral distribution, whereas most of the tools were located just north of the hearth. Because only the basal part of the hearth in 13N1E has been preserved, its surroundings completely destroyed, we could not check for a similar distribution pattern around that hearth. Fish remains were evenly distributed throughout the whole area; however, they had a clear maximum in the central squares. The few 7LODSLD remains were from northern squares. $UFKDHRORJLFDOPDWHULDO 3DYHPHQW" 5DZPDWHULDO Because the slope deposits beneath the site are rich in cobbles derived from the terrace, it was nearly impossible to make the distinction between slope deposit bles, which are rich in chert (about 30%). A macro- All chert was derived from the higher terrace cob- cobbles and manuports. Some cobbles are clearly situated within the archaeological layer, however. More- performed (tab. 9.1). The chert is not of a homogenescopic analysis of the available raw material has been over, many fire cracked and broken cobble fragments ous quality. are apparently of human origin. Some cobble fragments The Upper Palaeolithic people at the site seem to are intensively rubified due to their presumable use as have had a clear preference for a fine grained soft feeling chert of pink to light brownish grey colour (5 to 7.5 hearthstones. Sometimes, but not always, hearth fragments were still in a conjoined position. However, in YR 7/2) that represents about 1% of the terrace cobbles. This chert has good knapping qualities. We did the field it was not always easy to decide whether a cobble was fractured by fire or by salt wedging. Consequently, it had no real sense to draw a plan of the whole assemblage, as it is difficult and time consuming. not try to evaluate the ratio of this chert within the manuport cobbles. Such cobbles were frequent, but in However, if we look only at the very fresh tools, 80% our opinion, they cannot be considered as part of an of all items were knapped from such a pink chert. Late intentional pavement. Palaeolithic humans must have made a deliberate choice for this raw material. Occasionally other material, aside from chert, has been utilised for flaking, such as quartz, basalt and limestone, which can be found either in the nearby older terraces or in Eocene deposits that border the Figure Horizontal distribution of the archaeological materials (contour lines represent a relative elevation) l: retouched flake; 2: blade with basal retouch; 3: endscraper; 4: denticulated blade; 5: retouched blade; 6: notched flake; 7: thick denticulated flake; 8: burin; 9: cores; 10: other artefacts; 11: hearth; 12: post hole; 13: contour line of the base of the archaeological layer; 14: limit of non eroded archaeological layer; 15: quarry limit; 16: excavation limit 217

8 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge older terraces or in Eocene deposits that border the Nile valley. +RPRJHQHLW\RIWKHDVVHPEODJH Artefacts collected at Makhadma 2 have been considered as belonging to a single occupation period, even though this is unlikely because it is not possible to split up the material. Moreover, rolled Middle Palaeolithic artefacts with Levallois debitage as well as fresh blades have been collected during the excavations. Such material could have also come from slope deposits below the archaeological layer. Slope evolution, possibly activated by human presence on such steep slopes (± 11 %), is responsible for the inclusion of these earlier artefacts in the Late Palaeolithic deposits. These intrusive artefacts are often rolled and have a dark brown patina, but are occasionally rather fresh. We have tried to separate these from our artefact counts. The artefacts are often in a fresh state of preservation but some have been rolled. As a general rule, those that are most intensively rolled were found in the basal part of the grey-black layer, whereas the fresh ones were found in the central part of that layer. To exclude the weathered pieces was not always easy. For the tools we made a strict choice regarding the state of the artefact, in an attempt to avoid mixing up tools from different periods. Table Frequencies of artefact classes PN N % Cores Single platform 97 Opposed platform 7 Crossed platform 1 Multiple platform 11 Discoidal 1 Initially struck 19 Core trimming pieces Flakes Blades Chips Retouched tools Total A flaking technique using opposed platform cores was clearly not a standard procedure in the Makhadma 2 industry. If applied, flaked surfaces occur on the same side. Cores with only a few flakes struck off often look like chopper or copping tools according to Bordes' (1961) definition, but in fact are often the result of testing chert quality. Indeed, most of these pieces are of poor quality chert and were rejected after a few initial blows. Core trimming pieces are not well represented, suggesting that the debitage was not standardised but rather opportunistic, taking advantage of the cobble's shape and the proximity of large amounts of good quality chert. &RUHV For typological descriptions of cores we used the definitions specified by Close HWDO. (1979: 31). Single platform cores are the best-represented core type (66 %). All other core types are poorly represented. Generally, the flaking technique used was very simple, consisting of removing a primary flake perpendicular to the long axis of a chert cobble, creating a single platform, that was subsequently used for blade production along the long axis of the core. Occasionally, as can be seen from the low number of core trimming pieces, a crest was prepared before starting blade production. A very striking core characteristic is its nosed striking platform, which, at the rejection stage of the core, was not regularised. It implies that little attention was given to platform preparation. )ODNHVDQGEODGHV Many flakes have preserved cortex patches, as the cobbles from which they came were not large. Normally the flakes have an unfacetted butt. Blades (fig. 9.8: 1-4) are normally short (< 10 cm) and wide (2 to 3 cm), with an unprepared butt. Chips are those flakes with a largest dimension < 1 cm. 5HWRXFKHGWRROV Retouched tools are rare and their typological groups restricted. We used a slightly adapted version of Tixier's (1974) typology to classify them. One of the single end-scrapers on a flake is made on a large primary flake (fig. 9.11: 1). The other (fig. 218

9 9 - MAKHADMA 2, AN ESNAN SITE Figure : multiple mixed burin; 2: atypical thick dihedral burin; 3: notched flake; 4-5: denticulated flake; 6-13: denticulated blade 219

10 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge 9.8: 11) has sharp intersections between the scraping edge and flake edges. Two single end-scrapers on a blade have been made on large blanks (fig. 9.8: 7,10). Denticulated end-scrapers (fig. 9.8: 5-6,8-9) are made on thick flakes with deep notches. Often these notches are numerous, but in a few cases they are limited to two (fig. 9.8: 9), forming some kind of piercer. Because the general morphology both types is similar we preferred not to split them into separate groups. Instead, we classified them all as denticulated end-scrapers. Burins are present but are not typical. There is one thick angle dihedral burin (fig. 9.8: 12) and an angle burin on a break (fig. 9.8: 13). The latter displays a notch on its left edge. The multiple mixed burin (fig. 9.9: 1), also on a thick flake or blade fragment, associates a proximal angle dihedral burin with an angle burin on a break. Its left proximal edge is denticulated. The single composite tool associates a thick denticulated scraper with a rather atypical thick dihedral burin (fig. 9.9: 2). Table 9.3 : Tool type list N 1. Single end-scraper on a flake 2 5. Denticulated end-scraper 8 8. Single end-scraper on a blade Angle dihedral burin Burin on a break 1 Composite tool Multiple mixed burin End-scraper burin Notched flake Denticulated flake Denticulated blade Pieces with continuous retouch b Pointed piece with bilateral proximal ret Miscellaneous 2 Total 60 The notched flake (fig. 9.12: 3) looks like a piercer but the edge opposite the notch is the flake butt, which is unretouched. Often the notches (fig. 9.11: 6) have been retouched; Clacton notches are rare. Denticulated flakes (fig. 9.9: 4-5; 9.11: 3) are a morphologically diverse class. Sometimes the notches are retouched ones while other times they are Clacton notches. They can be either deep or wide. The denticulated blades (fig. 9.9: 6-13; 9.10: 1-2) always have retouched notches. Two adjacent notches frequently form a sharp tooth. Some of these pieces could be considered as a saw. Pieces with continuous retouch include artefacts with a retouched edge, intentional retouch, even if the retouch is not really continuous (fig. 9.10: 3-4, 6-7, 9-10). Two pieces fit in the 109b type of Close HW DO. (1979: 81): pointed piece with bilateral, abrupt proximal retouch. Some retouched flakes are characterised by a basal bilateral retouch (fig. 9.10: 5,8). We classify two pieces as miscellaneous. The first (fig. 9.10: 11) is a fragment of a bifacially flaked tool with an irregular oval section. It is important to note that this piece was found at the base of the eroded archaeological layer in square 20N3E, as such pieces normally do not fit within a Late Palaeolithic assemblage. The piece may belong to the Late Palaeolithic assemblage but can also be intrusive from older periods. Its physical aspect is similar to that of the other Late Palaeolithic material as it is fresh and unpatinated and made out of a similar chert quality. The other miscellaneous piece (fig. 9.10: 11) shows bifacial retouch as well but is probably a flake detached from a larger bifacial piece. )DXQDOUHPDLQVIURP0DNKDGPD Wim Van Neer The faunal remains were collected from the archaeological layer using sieves while the Sheikh Houssein silts were sampled in search for molluscs. The faunal remains were in a very poor state of preservation, often weathered by salt and consequently reduced to a powdery substance, which could no longer be sampled. Van Neer e.a. (this volume) is discussing the faunal remains &GDWLQJ Three 14 C dates, all on charcoal, were obtained from Makhadma 2. These 14 C dates are treated statistically and calibrated according to OxCal v3.3 (Ramsey 1999). Because the radiocarbon dates have been made on samples of different ages, the combination is done after calibration using Combine. According to the calculated agreement index the date ± 170 BP (GrN-12031) from hearth 2 does not belong to the 220

11 9 - MAKHADMA 2, AN ESNAN SITE Figure : denticulated blade; 3-4,6-7,9-10: piece with continuous retouch; 5,8: flake with basal bilateral retouch; 11-12: bifacial flaked tool 221

12 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge Figure : scraper on a flake; 3: denticulated flake; 6: notched blade 222

13 9 - MAKHADMA 2, AN ESNAN SITE same population as the date of hearth 1 (12270 ± 100 BP - GrN-12030). Stratigraphically, however, these hearths are situated in the same artefact-bearing layer, with hearth 1 situated about 4 m upslope from hearth 2. The 14 C date ± 280 BP (GrN-12029) on charcoal sieved out of the Sheikh Houssein silts from 1-2S0E fits remarkably well with the age of hearth 1. The combined calibrated ages of GrN and GrN (fig. 9.15) is 68.2% confidence BC (6.7%) 12800BC BC (57.4%) BC BC (4.1%) BC 95.4% confidence BC (30.5%) BC BC (59.3%) BC BC (5.6%) BC The stratigraphical position of hearth 1 overlying a posthole structure clearly connects this event to the occupation of the Makhadma 2 site and its associated industry. The hearth does not, however, represent the first occupation phase of the site, which is represented by the posthole underneath it. It is possible that sample GrN from hearth 2 is related to an earlier occupation of the site. If this is the case, the site range is situated somewhere in the time range of: BC (68.2%) BC 95.4% confidence BC (95.4) BC However, if the sample age is unrelated to the occupation [burning of old wood (Schild & Wendorf 1997) then the site inhabitants lived at this spot most probably during a period in the time range between and Cal BC (confidence 84.8%), or between and Cal BC (confidence 57.4%). These dates are discussed together with the dates of Makhadma 4 in section &RQFOXVLRQV The Makhadma 2 site has been positioned on higher grounds, just out of reach of the highest flood levels of the 'Wild Nile'episode. From here, prehistoric humans had easy and continuous access to the floodplain pools, an optimal environment for fishing (Van Neer 1989). The site, with its grey-black archaeological deposits, is in fact a midden, similar to the HVFDUJRWLqUHV of the Maghreb but with fish remains instead of snail shells. Most of the sediments of the black archaeological layer are of human origin. Only the sandy matrix and the cobbles are locally derived. The bone, flint, charcoal and ash make up a typical midden deposit. The mixing of the black silt is probably due to the frequent contact between the site and the muddy fishing Atmospheric data from Stuiver et al. Radiocarbon (1998); OxCal v3.3 Bronk Ramsey (1999); cub r:4 sd:12 prob usp[chron] Combine Makahdma211 [n=2 A=121.1%(An= 50.0%)] GrN ±100BP GrN ±280BP Combine Makahdma CalBC 14000CalBC 12000CalBC 10000CalBC Calibrated date Figure Makhadma 2: calibration of the radiocarbon-dates where A is the calculated agreement index and An is the value (dependent on n) below which it should not fall 68.2% confidence 223

14 P. M. Vermeersch, E. Paulissen & D. Huyge grounds during the Wild Nile stage when the black Sheikh Houssein silts were aggrading. Based on the inner structure of the black archaeological layer, it can be inferred that the midden deposits are the result of a relatively long, but not necessarily continuous, occupation period. Indeed, the superposition of a hearth above a posthole is indicative of subsequent or repetitive use of the site. During their stay the prehistoric humans introduced numerous cobbles from the higher terrace grounds to the site. Some have been used for heating purposes. Faunal remains suggest that fish, mainly catfish but also some Tilapia, was the main staple of the prehistoric diet at the site. There is no evidence concerning fishing techniques, but according to the fish remains, most of them seem to have been captured during the receding Nile flood. The prehistoric humans could have been captured the fish using nets, clubs or their hands. For the preparation and storage of the fish, prehistoric people needed a lot of fire, as is attested by the important amount of charcoal in the archaeological layer. The simplest techniques of fish preparation use fire involve spreading them on piles of grass that are then set on fire or by hanging the fish on racks and making a fire under them (Blache & Miton 1962). Both these preparation techniques may have been used at Makhadma 2. The postholes may even relate to the hanging of the fish. The site probably had a seasonal character related to the Nile flooding season. During the dry season humans would have gone closer to the main Nile channel in order to have easy access to water. The lithic material of Makhadma 2 is characterised by the absence of the Levallois and microburin technique. Flaking was almost always performed on single platform cores. This is rather exceptional as at most Late Palaeolithic sites opposed platform cores dominate (Vermeersch 1991). Pieces with continuous retouch represent the most important tool type. Endscrapers, especially denticulated end-scrapers are well represented. Blades with proximal retouch are present. The presence of at least one bifacial tool is exceptional. Technologically, the Makhadma 2 material is clearly Late Palaeolithic, but its typology seems uncharacteristic. For that reason, in a preliminary publication (Vermeersch, Paulissen, Van Neer 1989), we refused to relate this poor assemblage with one of the known industries. Meanwhile, Wendorf & Schild (1989) have argued that the low number of tools may be indicative of an Isnan relationship. Indeed, endscrapers are well represented, as is the case in the Isnan sites. At Makhadma 2 a few blades with basal retouch are also present, which commonly occur in the Silsilian. However, the Isnan is clearly contemporaneous with the Wild Nile alluviation, as is Makhadma 2. We therefore agree with Wendorf & Schild in that the attribution of Makhadma 2 to the Isnan is plausible. 224