Historical Perspectives and Recent Advances in Mapping the Sciences

Transcription

1 Historical Perspectives and Recent Advances in Mapping the Sciences UCGIS Summer Meeting, June 22, 2009 Kevin W. Boyack SciTech Strategies, Inc. Acknowledgments Gene Garfield and Henry Small (ISI, Thomson) They started it all Dick Klavans (SciTech Strategies) Has mapped science for 20 years and is a continual source of new ideas on how to more accurately represent science Katy Börner and Peter Hook (Indiana University) I have stolen a great many pictures from their slides 1

2 Overview Cartography vs. Science mapping Early science maps Conceptual and hand-made Electronic Recent developments in science mapping Issues and future possibilities Cyberinfrastructures Cartography vs. Science mapping 3-D Physically-based Accuracy is measurable Trade-offs have more to do with granularity than accuracy 2-D projections are very accurate at local levels Centuries of experience Geo-maps can be a template for other data High dimensionality Abstract t space Accuracy is difficult Trade-offs implicitly affect accuracy 2-D projections neglect a great deal of information Decades of experience Science maps can be a template for other data 2

3 Some cartographic examples 6 3

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5 What is a map of science? A map contains: A set of elements The relationships between those elements Explicit relationships Proximity relationships backed by explanation of the proximity A classification system contains: A set of elements Classification is necessary for, but not equal to, a map Best example is the Library of Congress classification Each high level category can be mapped from hierarchical links But no relationships between the high level categories are given How should a map of science appear? What metaphors would work best? Geo Concept Time-series How could metaphors be best combined? What can we learn from cartography? 5

6 Science Mapping History Early classification Conceptual science maps Textual or done by hand Early data-based maps Electronic, based on actual data Extreme thresholding Most recent maps Electronic Can map most or all of science Different methods and data sources, similar results Comte, 1830 As a definitive result, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, physiology, and social physics; such is the encyclopedic formula which, among the great number of classifications which the six fundamental sciences include, is solely in logical conformity with the natural and invariable hierarchy of phenomena. Math Astro Phys Chem Physiol Social Comte (1830). Cours de Philosophie Positive (Vol. i), p

7 Not everyone agreed Controversy in 1860 s From our present point of view, then, it becomes obvious that the conception of a serial arrangement of the sciences is a vicious one. It is not simply that the schemes we have examined are untenable; but it is that the sciences cannot be rightly placed in any linear order whatever There is no one rational order among a host of possible systems. Spencer (1864). Universal Progress A Series of Discussions, p Otlet, 1890s 1920s Paul Otlet realizes that Dewey s Decimal Classification could be used to map knowledge domains. He begins work on converting Dewey s system into the more faceted Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). Otlet states [again] that the UDC may be used to create an immense map of the domains of knowledge (Otlet, 1918, p. 78). Rayword, B. (1994). Visions of Xanadu: Paul Otlet ( ) and hypertext. JASIS, 45(4),

8 Bernal, 1939 John D. Bernal was a world renowned physicist, a historian of science, and a sociologist of science. He is considered to have produced one of the first maps of science. Bernal, J.D. (1939). The Social Function of Science. London: Routledge & Kegan Ltd. Ellingham, 1948 Ellingham s Relations Between the Branches of Natural Science and Technology with an overlay of Abstracts or Groups of Abstracts Covering A Very Wide Field (1948) H. J. T. Ellingham (1948). "Divisions of Natural Science and Technology," Royal Society Scientific Information Conference, 21 June to 2 July 1948, London: Burlington House, 8

9 Garfield, 1964 Historiograph of DNA Development Eugene Garfield, recent photo. Creator of the ISI Web of Science citation database. Garfield, Sher, & Torpie (1964). "The Use of Citation Data in Writing the History of Science. Air Force Office of Scientific Research under contract F49(638) Small, 1973 Using co-citation to create domain maps Henry Small. Head of research at ISI, now Thomson Reuters Scientific. Small, H. (1973). Co-citation in the scientific literature: A new measure of the relationship between two documents. JASIS, 24, Marshakova, I.V. (1973). A system of document connections based on references. Scientific and Technical Information Serial of VINITI, 6,

10 Co-citation Map, Griffith, 1974 Map of paradigms in science Paradigms are clusters of reference papers; hierarchical clustering was used Cluster size reflects number of references Links show relationships between clusters Griffith, B. C., Small, H. G., Stonehill, J. A., Dey, S. (1974). Structure of scientific literatures. 2. Toward a macrostructure and microstructure for science. Science Studies, 4 (1974) ISI Atlas of Science, 1981 Book of research fronts in science Large maps shows relative positions of different research fronts (individual circles) Layout done using multidimensional scaling Institute for Scientific Information. (1981). ISI atlas of science: Biochemistry and molecular biology, 1978/80, Institute for Scientific Information, Philadelphia, PA. 10

11 ISI Atlas of Science, 1981 Example of an individual research front Co-citation analysis of highly-cited reference papers Institute for Scientific Information. (1981). ISI atlas of science: Biochemistry and molecular biology, 1978/80, Institute for Scientific Information, Philadelphia, PA. Co-word Map, Martin, 1989 Martin & Irvine (1989). Research Foresight: Priority-setting in Science, London: Pinter, p

12 Transition Period, Hand-drawn maps from the 1930 s-40 s are elegant and have a cartographic feel Electronic maps through 1990 s are interesting, but Reflect small data sets Look like scientific plots Have little or no artistic feel Draw very little from cartography Things change around 1995 Mapping principles start to show up in some maps By 2002, many maps have a cartographic feel to them SPIRE, Themescape, 1995 Pacific Northwest Labs introduces a mapping tool based on text 2.5-D representation of intensity of themes using topography Later spinoff of same technology used in patent analysis products Wise, Thomas, Pennock, et al. (1995). Visualizing the non-visual: Spatial analysis and interaction with information from text documents. Paper presented at the IEEE Symposium on Information Visualization '95, Atlanta, Georgia, USA., October 30-31,

13 VxInsight, 1998 Sandia National Labs introduces an interactive browsing tool for exploring maps Primarily for exploring citation-based maps, but ultimately used in science studies and genomics Zoom, pan, query, etc. capabilities Davidson, Hendrickson, Johnson, Meyers & Wylie (1998). Knowledge mining with VxInsight: Discovery through interaction. Journal of Intelligent Information Systems, 11(3), Co-citation Map, Small, ,720 highly-cited papers in a four-level nested map Triangulation process used for layout at the highest level High disciplinary bias due to thresholding Small, H. (1999). Visualizing science by citation mapping, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50,

14 Co-citation Map, Small, 1999 First visual attempt at using nesting and zoomed-in levels of detail. Small, H. (1999) Visualizing science by citation mapping, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50, Co-citation Map, Small, 1999 First visual attempt at using nesting and zoomed-in levels of detail. Small, H. (1999) Visualizing science by citation mapping, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50,

15 Co-citation Map, Small, 1999 First visual attempt at using nesting and zoomed-in levels of detail. Small, H. (1999) Visualizing science by citation mapping, Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50, Author Co-citation Map, White, highly-cited authors in Information Science Layout using multidimensional scaling White & McCain (1998) Visualizing a discipline: An author cocitation analysis of information science JASIS 49(4),

16 Old, 2001 Utilizing spatial information systems for non-spatial data analysis Authors in Information Science Topography added 3D representation also Newman, 2001 Physicist bringing new tools to the problem 2-generation coauthorship graph of Mark himself (center node) Newman, M.E.J. (2001). Scientific collaboration networks. II. Shortest paths, weighted networks, and centrality. Physical Review E, 64, paper #

17 Newman, 2001 Physicist bringing new tools to the problem 2-generation coauthorship graph of Mark himself (center node) Newman, M.E.J. (2001). Scientific collaboration networks. II. Shortest paths, weighted networks, and centrality. Physical Review E, 64, paper # Chen, 2001 Software: CiteSpace I Four-step procedure for visualizing intellectual structures using co-cited documents Chen & Paul (2001). Visualizing a knowledge domain s intellectual structure. Computer, 34(3),

18 Chen, 2006 Software: CiteSpace II Similar process, 2-D rather than 3-D visuals Chen, C. (2006). CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. JASIST, 57(3), Chen, 2006 Software: CiteSpace II Timeline views Mass Extinction ( ) Chen, C. (2006). CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. JASIST, 57(3),

19 Skupin, 2002 Applied self-organizing map to conference abstracts Applied cartographic principles and techniques to the resulting SOM Skupin, A. (2002). A cartographic approach to visualizing conference abstracts. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 22,

20 Another Transition Period, ca Most science maps through the 1990 s and into the 2000 s were of small segments of science In comparison to the world map, these would be on the scale of cities, or sometimes even states Although ISI had done maps of all of science, they were highly thresholded The equivalent in geography would be to base a map of the world (continent and country locations and sizes) only on cities with a million people or more Starting in 2002, we began to map of all of science Enabled by electronic availability of large amounts of bibliographic data and increases in computing power Focus on accuracy All of Science: Klavans, 2002 Co-citation map of 500,000 reference papers Grouped into 38,600 clusters Each cluster shown as a dot on the map Layout done using a combination of MDS and triangulation Unpublished 20

21 All of Science: Boyack et al., 2003 Map of over 7,000 journals LIS Geogr Comp Sci Over 200 clusters of journals based on intercitation statistics Graph layout techniques to position clusters Comm Educ PolySci Law Social Sci Sociol Hist Geront Neurol Psychol Econ AI Stat Psychol Anthrop Robot Oper Res Math Appl Math Elect Eng Physics Aerosp Nuc CondMat Mech Eng MatSci Constr Inaccurate locations: it appears there is a center to science, but it is an artifact of the graph layout Psychol Pharma Sport Sci Radiol Health Env Care Emerg Gen Med Med Neuro Sci Astro Biomed Rehab Nursing Genet BioChem Cardio OtoRh Oncol Ped Surg Endocr Medicine Immun Hemat Ecol Nutr Urol Virol Gastro Plant Ob/Gyn Derm Endocr Dairy Dentist Pathol Food Sci Parasit Elect Fuels Analyt P Chem Chem Chem Gen/Org GeoSci Chem Eng Chemistry Polymer Meteorol Marine GeoSci Env Earth Sciences Paleo Soil Zool Boyack, K. W., Klavans, R., & Börner, K. (2005). Mapping the backbone of science. Scientometrics 64(3), Ophth Vet Med Ento Agric All of Science: Boyack et al., 2003 Map of over 7,000 journals Over 200 clusters of journals based on intercitation statistics Graph layout techniques to position clusters Inaccurate locations: it appears there is a center to science, but it is an artifact of the graph layout Boyack, K. W., Klavans, R., & Börner, K. (2005). Mapping the backbone of science. Scientometrics 64(3),

22 All of Science: Boyack et al., 2003 Map of over 7,000 journals Over 200 clusters of journals based on intercitation statistics Graph layout techniques to position clusters Inaccurate locations: it appears there is a center to science, but it is an artifact of the graph layout Modified from Boyack et al. by Ian Aliman, Indiana University. All of Science: Boyack et al., 2003 Map of over 7,000 journals Over 200 clusters of journals based on intercitation statistics Graph layout techniques to position clusters Inaccurate locations: it appears there is a center to science, but it is an artifact of the graph layout 22

23 Pajek All of Science: Boyack et al., 2004 Law Math Map of over 7,000 journals from ISI database (2002 fileyear) Over 600 clusters of journals based on bibliographic coupling Improvements in accuracy due to: - Two levels of clustering - Better handling of multidisciplinary journal Policy Economics Education Psychology Brain Psychiatry Stat Vision MRI BioMat CompSci Physics Astro Engineering PhysChem Chemistry Environ BioChem GeoSci Biology General Medicine Plant MicroBio Cancer Therapeutic Boyack, K. W., Klavans, R., & Börner, K. (2007). Mapping the structure and evolution of chemistry research. ISSI Virology Infect Disease Journal version: (2009). Scientometrics, 79(2),

24 All of Science: Boyack, 2005 Map of 8,500 journals and proceedings from ISI database (2003 fileyear) Addition of proceedings produced some changes in the mapped structure of science Social Sciences Psych CS Brain Math Physics Engineering Chemistry Biology Earth Sciences Boyack, K. W. (2007). Using detailed maps of science to identify potential collaborations. ISSI Therapeutic Medicine Virology % Proceedings 100% % % % % % % 0% Journal version: (2009). Scientometrics, 79(2), All of Science: Klavans, Boyack, 2007 Map of over 13,000 journals and proceedings from Scopus database (2004 fileyear) Comparison to ISI map (not shown) Klavans, R. & Boyack, K. W. (2007). Is there a convergent structure of science? A comparison of maps from the ISI and Scopus databases. ISSI

25 All of Science: Klavans, 2007 Map of over 16,000 journals and proceedings from ISI and Scopus databases ( fileyears) Two levels of clustering Spherical layout of 554 clusters Mercator projection of spherical layout View from south pole is nearly circular Klavans, R. & Boyack, K. W. (2007). Is there a convergent structure of science? A comparison of maps from the ISI and Scopus databases. ISSI All of Science: Klavans, Boyack, 2006 Co-citation map of 800,000 papers from the ISI database (2004 fileyear) Four levels of clustering Klavans, R. & Boyack, K. W. (2008). Thought leadership: A new indicator for national and institutional comparison. Scientometrics, 75(2),

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29 57 Illuminated Diagram Display W. Bradford Paley, Kevin W. Boyack, Richard Klavans, and Katy Börner (2007) Mapping, Illuminating, and Interacting with Science. SIGGRAPH Questions: Who is doing research on what topic and where? What is the footprint t of interdisciplinary research fields? What impact have scientists? Contributions: Interactive, high resolution interface to access and make sense of data about scholarly activity. Large-scale, high resolution prints illuminated via projector or screen. Interactive touch panel

30 Brilliant Display, (2006). Nature, 444,

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32 Where will science mapping go now? Many people are now mapping all of science Increased detail and complexity Using layout, color, size, etc. Some desire to map all of knowledge including the temporal dimension What will that map look like? Google-maps (or earth)-like interface is the most likely current suggestion We re going the other direction Simple, one-dimensional map of science Reducing to one dimension reduces accuracy Reduction in complexity enables intuition Consensus among experts Klavans, R., & Boyack, K. W. (2009). Toward a consensus map of science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60(3),

33 The circle of science Scopus data single year (2007) 554 disciplines 84k paradigms Count references & apply threshold 2.1 M highly cited references Cluster references using co-citation 84,000 clusters (paradigms) Fractionally assign current papers to paradigms 5.6M current papers ( ) Order 80,000 paradigms around perimeter of a circle For visualization purposes Calculating research leadership / IDR Start with 84,000 paradigms 554 disciplines 84k paradigms Threshold using market share High market share paradigms Cluster paradigms using university papers Identify university strengths Calculate leadership quantities, sizes Identify distinctive competencies Locate distinctive competencies within the circle For visualization purposes 33

34 Different Methodologies- Different Results Traditional Method New Method Klavans, R. Taxonomies; International Comparisons & Policy Applications. Visualization Workshop at National Science Foundation. Sept 11, 2008 Spotlight previews University size rank 25 University size rank

35 Spotlight previews University size rank 110 University size rank Spotlight previews University size rank 505 University size rank

36 Solar / photovoltaic Country Total Papers Papers in DCs % in DCs United States % Germany % Japan % Taiwan % China % Great Britain % Switzerland % Netherlands % Singapore % Italy % So. Korea 76 0% Canada 20 0% Hong Kong 13 0% Region Total Papers Papers in DC's % in DCs Europe % North America % Asia % Red North America Blue Asia Yellow Europe Dynamic patterns 36

37 Dynamic patterns Cyberinfrastructures 37

38 Scholarly Database: Web Interface Anybody can register for free at to search the about 23 million records and download results as data dumps. In May 2009, SDB has over 170 registered users from academia, industry, and government from over 80 institutions and four continents. 38

39 All papers, maps, cyberinfrastructures, talks, press are linked from 39

40 See Mapping Science Exhibit 10 Iterations in 10 years The Power of Maps (2005) Science Maps for Economic Decision Makers (2008) The Power of Reference Systems (2006) Science Maps for Science Policy Makers (2009) Science Maps for Scholars (2010) Science Maps as Visual Interfaces to Digital Libraries (2011) Science Maps for Kids (2012) Science Forecasts (2013) The Power of Forecasts (2007) How to Lie with Science Maps (2014) Exhibit has been shown in 49 venues on four continents. Also at - NSF, 10th Floor, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA. - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China, May 17-Nov. 15, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, Nov 10-Jan 31, Center of Advanced European Studies and Research, Bonn, Germany, Dec ,

41 Publications on science mapping Börner, K., Chen, C., & Boyack, K. W. (2003). Visualizing knowledge domains. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology 37, Boyack, K. W. (2004). Mapping knowledge domains: Characterizing PNAS. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, Boyack, K. W., Klavans, R., & Börner, K. (2005). Mapping the backbone of science. Scientometrics 64(3), Klavans, R., & Boyack, K. W. (2006). Identifying a better measure of relatedness for mapping science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 57(2), Klavans, R., & Boyack, K. W. (2006). Quantitative evaluation of large maps of science. Scientometrics 68(3), Boyack, K. W. (2009). Using detailed maps of science to identify potential collaborations. Scientometrics 79(1), Boyack, K. W., Börner, K., & Klavans, R. (2009). Mapping the structure and evolution of chemistry research. Scientometrics t i 79(1), Klavans, R., & Boyack, K. W. (2009). Toward a consensus map of science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60(3), Klavans, R., & Boyack, K. W. (2009). Toward an objective, reliable, and accurate method for measuring research leadership. Scientometrics, in press. Summary Science mapping has a history of many decades It is only in the past 15 years that graphic or cartographic principles have been applied in a meaningful way Such application is still in its infancy It s not clear which way science mapping will evolve from here Simpler, less cartographic representation More complex and comprehensive, Google-map like interface All suggestions and ideas will be gratefully considered 41