FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERAL, ORGANIG, AND BLOLOGIGAL CHEMISTRY JOHN R. HOLUM

Transcription

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF GENERAL, ORGANIG, AND BLOLOGIGAL CHEMISTRY SIXTH EDITION JOHN R. HOLUM Augsburg College JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York / Ghichester / Weinheim Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto

2 CONTENTS 1 GOALS, METHODS, AND MEASUREMENTS 1.1 Chemistry and the Molecular Basis of Life 1.2 Facts, Hypotheses, and Theories in Science Properties and the States of Matter Physical Quantities, Measurement, and Significant Figures Scientific Notation Factor-Label Method in Galculations Density and Specific Gravity 22 Summary 24 Review Exercises 25 2 MATTER AND ENERGY This Chapter in Gontext States and Kinds of Matter Atoms, Chemical Symbols, and Equations 2.3 Kinetic and Potential Energy Heat Heat and Molecular Kinetic Energy 43 Summary 45 Review Exercises 46 3 ATOMIG THEORY AND THE PERIODIC TABLE This Chapter in Context The Nuclear Atom Periodic Law and Periodic Table Electron Gonfigurations, an Overview Electron Configurations and Atomic Orbitals 60 Summary 69 Review Exercises 70 4 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS AND CHEMICAL BONDS This Chapter in Context Electron Transfers and Ionic Compounds 4.2 Monatomic Ions and the Octet Rule 81 5 QUANTITATIVE RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS This Chapter in Gontext Mole Concept Atomic, Formula, and Molecular Masses Balanced Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry Reactions in Solution Molar Concentration Preparing Dilute Solutions from Goncentrated Solutions 138 Summary 141 Review Exercises Redox Reactions Electron Sharing and Molecular Compounds Lewis Structures and the Octet Rule Structures of Polyatomic Ions Writing Lewis Structures of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions Shapes of Molecules Polar Molecules 107 Summary 111 Review Exercises STATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETIC THEORY 146 This Chapter in Gontext Gaseous State Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships for a Fixed Amount of Gas Ideal Gas Law Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures Kinetic Theory of Gases Revisited Liquid State Vapor Pressure, Dynamic Equilibria, and Ghanges of State Water and the Hydrogen Bond Solid State 169 Summary 171 Review Exercises 172

3 xii CONTENTS 7 SOLUTIONS, AND GOLLOIDS 177 This Chapter in Context lypes of Homogeneous Mixtures Aqueous Solutions and How They Form Solubilities of Gases Percentage Concentration Expressions Osmosis and Dialysis Dialysis and the Bloodstream 195 Summary 198 Review Exercises ACIDS, BASES, AND IONIC COMPOUNDS 202 This Chapter in Context Electrolytes Acids and Bases as Electrolytes Chemical Properties of Aqueous Acids and Bases Strengths of Br0nsted Acids and Bases A Qualitative View Salts 229 Summary 239 Review Exercises REACTION KINETICS AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA. ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA 246 This Chapter in Context Factors That Affect Reaction Rates Kinetic Theory and Chemical Reactions Chemical Equilibria Revisited Ion Product Constant of Water ph Concept Acid Ionization Constants 264 9i7 Base Ionization Constants pft a and pk h Concepts Buffers Some Quantitative Aspects of Buffers Acid-Base Titrations 284 Summary 286 Review Exercises RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY This Chapter in Context Atomic Radiation Ionizing Radiation Dangers and Precautions Units to Describe and Measure Radiation Synthetic Radionuclides Radiation Technology in the Food Industry Radiation Technology in Medicine Atomic Energy and Radionuclides 312 Summary 318 Review Exercises ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. SATURATED HYDROCARBONS 323 This Chapter in Context Organic and Inorganic Compounds Some Structural Features of Organic Compounds Isomerism Functional Groups Alkanes and Cycloalkanes Naming the Alkanes and Cycloalkanes Chemical Properties of Alkanes 351 Summary 356 Review Exercises UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS 361 This Chapter in Context Occurrence Naming the Alkenes Geometrie Isomers Addition Reactions of the Double Bond How Addition Reactions Occur Addition Polymers Benzene Ring and Aromatic Properties Naming Compounds of Benzene 391 Summary 392 Review Exercises ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS, ETHERS, AND THIOALCOHOLS This Chapter in Context Occurrence, Types, and Names of Alcohols Physical Properties of Alcohols

4 CONTENTS xiii 13.3 Chemical Properties of Alcohols Phenols Ethers Thioalcohols and Disulfides 420 Summary 422 Review Exercises ALDEHYDES AND KETONES 428 This Chapter in Context Structures and Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones Naming Aldehydes and Ketones Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones with Alcohols 439 Summary 445 Review Exercises Molecular Chirality Optical Activity 509 Summary 514 Review Exercises GARBOHYDRATES This Chapter in Context Biochemistry An Overview Introduction to Monosaccharides 518 D- and L-Families of Carbohydrates 521 Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides 526 Disaccharides 534 Polysaccharides Summary 541 Review Exercises CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND ESTERS 452 This Chapter in Context Occurrences, Names, and Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids 453 Acidity of Carboxylic Acids 456 Conversion of Carboxylic Acids to Esters 459 Occurrence, Names, and Physical Properties of Esters 463 Some Reactions of Esters 467 Organophosphate Esters and Anhydrides Summary 474 Review Exercises AMINES AND AMIDES 479 This Chapter in Context Occurrence, Names, and Physical Properties of Amines Chemical Properties of Amines Amides of Carboxylic Acids 487 Summary 493 Review Exercises STEREOISOMERISM This Chapter in Context 17.1 Types of Isomerism LlPIDS This Chapter in Context What Lipids Are Chemical Properties of Triacylglycerols 19.3 Phospholipids Steroids Cell Membranes TheirLipid Gomponents 562 Summary 564 Review Exercises PROTEINS 567 This Chapter in Context Amino Acids. The Building Blocks of Proteins 568 Overview of Protein Structure Primary Structures of Proteins Secondary Structures of Proteins Tertiary Structures of Proteins Quaternary Structures of Proteins Common Properties of Proteins 585 Cell Membranes Revisited Glycoprotein Components Classes of Proteins 596 Summary 597 Review Exercises 598

5 xiv CONTENTS 21 ENZYMES 601 This Ghapter in Gontext The Nature of Enzymes Enzyme-Substrate Complex Kinetics of Simple Enzyme-Substrate Interactions Regulation of Enzymes Enzymes in Medicine 616 Summary 619 Review Exercises 620 Summary 701 Review Exercises BlOCHEMICAL ENERGETIGS 705 This Ghapter in Context Energy for Living An Overview Gitric Acid Gycle Respiratory Chain 715 Summary 722 Review Exercises 723 HORMONES AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS 622 This Ghapter in Context Chemical Communication How It Works Hormones and Neurotransmitters Retrograde Messengers 636 Summary 638 Review Exercises EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS OF THE BODY 640 This Chapter in Gontext Digestive Juices Blood and the Absorption of Nutrients by Cells Blood and the Exchange of Respiratory Gases Acid-Base Balance of the Blood Blood and the Functions of the Kidneys 662 Summary 663 Review Exercises METABOLISM OF GARBOHYDRATES 725 This Chapter in Context Glycogen Metabolism Glucose Tolerance Gatabolism of Glucose Gluconeogenesis 739 Summary 741 Review Exercises METABOLISM OF LIPIDS 744 This Chapter in Context Absorption and Distribution of Lipids Storage and Mobilization of Lipids Oxidation of Fatty Acids Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids Biosynthesis of Gholesterol Ketoacidosis 759 Summary 762 Review Exercises NUGLEIC ACIDS 667 This Chapter in Context Heredity and the Cell Structure of Nucleic Acids Ribonucleic Acids mrna-directed Polypeptide Synthesis 24.5 Viruses Recombinant DNA Technology and Genetic Engineering Hereditary Diseases and Genetic Engineering METABOLISM OF NITROGEN COMPOUNDS 765 This Ghapter in Gontext Synthesis of Amino Acids in the Body Gatabolism of Amino Acids Formation of Urea Gatabolism of Other Nitrogen Compounds 775 Summary 778 Review Exercises

6 CONTENTS XV 29 NUTRITION This Ghapter in Gontext General Nutritional Requirements Protein Requirements Vitamins Minerals and Trace Elements in Nutrition 795 Summary 798 Review Exercises 799 C Some Rules for Naming Inorganic Compounds C-l D Three Organic Reaction Mechanisms D-l E Answers to Practice Exercises and Selected Review Exercises E-l GLOSSARY G-l PHOTO GREDITS P-I APPENDIGES A Mathematical Goncepts A-l B Electron Gonfigurations of the Elements B-l INDEX M