8th Grade Integrated Science

Transcription

1 CASTEEL HIGH SCHOOL CHANDLER UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT 8th Grade Integrated Science MRS. KALSCHEUR S QUARTER 2 VOCABULARY PART 1 OF 2 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL SCIENCE PHYSICAL SCIENCE [Chapter 1 Section 1 of textbook] Observing: means using one or more senses to gather information. Your senses include sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Qualitative Observations: are descriptions that don t involve numbers or measurements. Quantitative Observations: are measurements. Inferring: When you explain your observations, you are inferring, or making an inference. Inferences are based on reasoning from what you already know. Predicting: means making a forecast of what will happen in the future based on past experience or evidence. Physical Science: is the study of matter, energy, and the changes they undergo. Chemistry: is the study of the properties of matter and how matter changes. The branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed; the investigation of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and change; and the use of these processes to form new substances. Physics: is the study of matter and energy and how they interact. The branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of matter and energy. The subject matter of physics, distinguished from that of chemistry and biology, includes mechanics, heat, light and other radiation, sound, electricity, magnetism, and the structure of atoms. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY [Chapter 1 Section 2 of textbook] Scientific Inquiry: refers to the different ways scientists study the natural world. The processes that scientists use in inquiry include posing questions, developing hypotheses, designing experiments, collecting and interpreting data, drawing conclusions, and communicating ideas and results. Hypothesis: is a possible answer to a scientific question or explanation for a set of observations. 1

2 Variables: are factors that can change in an experiment. In a well-designed experiment, only one variable is purposely changed. Manipulated Variable: The variable that is changed is the manipulated variable (or independent variable). Responding Variable: The variable that is expected to change because of the manipulated variable is the responding variable (or dependent variable). Controlled Experiment: an investigation in which all variables except one remain the same. Data: are the facts, figures, and other evidence gathered through observations. Communicating: is sharing ideas and conclusions through writing and speaking. Scientific Law: is a statement that describes what scientists expect to happen every time under a particular set of conditions. Scientific Theory: is a well-tested explanation for a wide range of observations or experimental results. CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO MATTER DESCRIBING MATTER [Chapter 2 Section 1 of textbook] Matter: anything that has mass and takes up space. Chemistry: the study of the properties of matter and how matter changes. Substance: a single kind of matter that is pure, meaning it always has a specific makeup, or composition, and a specific set of properties. Physical Property: is a characteristic of a pure substance that can be observed without changing it into another substance. Chemical Property: is a characteristic of a pure substance that describes its ability to change into different substances. Substance: a single kind of matter that is pure, meaning it always has a specific makeup, or composition, and a specific set of properties. Element: is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into any other substances by chemical or physical means. Elements are the simplest substances. Atom: is the basic particle from which all elements are made. Different elements have different properties because their atoms are different. 2

3 Chemical Bond: When atoms combine, they form a chemical bond, which is a force of attraction between two atoms. Molecules: Atoms combine to form larger particles called molecules - groups of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Compound: is a pure substance made of two or more elements chemically combined in a set ratio. When elements are chemically combined, they form compounds having properties that are different from those of the uncombined elements. Chemical Formula: A compound may be represented by a chemical formula, which shows the elements in the compound and the ratio of atoms. Mixture: is made of two or more substances - elements, compounds, or both - that are together in the same place but are not chemically combined. Mixtures differ from compounds in two ways. Each substance in a mixture keeps its individual properties. Also, the parts of a mixture are not combined in a set ratio. Heterogenous Mixture: a mixture that you can see the different parts. Homogeneous Mixture: a mixture where the substances are so evenly mixed that you can t see the different parts. Solution: a well-mixed mixture containing a solvent and at least one solute that has the same properties throughout. MEASURING MATTER [Chapter 2 Section 2 of textbook] Weight: a measure of the force of gravity on an object. Mass: is the measurement if the amount of matter in the object. Unlike weight, mass does not change with location, even when the force of gravity of an object changes. International System of Units (SI): the system used to measure the properties of matter. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Volume: the amount of space that matter occupies. Common units of volume include the liter (L), milliliter (ml), and cubic centimeter (cm 3 ). The volumes of solid objects are usually expressed in cubic centimeters with the formula of Volume = Length x Width x Height. Density: the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume. Often, density is expressed as the number of grams in one cubic centimeter. Density = Mass/Volume. 3

4 CHANGES IN MATTER [Chapter 2 Section 3 of textbook] Physical Change: is any change that alters the form or appearance of matter but does not make any substance in the matter into a different substance. A substance that undergoes a physical change is still the same substance after the change. Chemical Change: a change in which one or more substances combine or break apart to form new substances. Unlike a physical change, a chemical change produces new substances with properties different from those of the original substances. Law of Conservation of Mass: the principle developed by French chemist, Antoine Lavoisier, in the 1770s that the total amount of matter is neither created nor destroyed during any chemical or physical change. Energy: is the ability to do work or cause change. Every chemical or physical change in matter includes a change in energy. Temperature: is a measure of the average energy of random motion of particles of matter. Thermal Energy: is the total potential and kinetic energy of all of the particles in an object. Endothermic Change: a change in which energy is taken in. Exothermic Change: a change in which energy is given off. ENERGY AND MATTER [Chapter 2 Section 4 of textbook] Kinetic Energy: is the energy of matter in motion. Potential Energy: is the energy an object has because of its position. Chemical Energy: a form of potential energy that is stored in chemical bonds between atoms. Electromagnetic Energy: a form of energy that travels through space as waves. Electrical Energy: is the energy of electrically charged particles moving from one place to another. Electrodes: a metal strip that conducts electricity. 4

5 CHAPTER 3: SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES STATES OF MATTER [Chapter 3 Section 1 of textbook] Solid: has a definite shape and definite volume due to fixed, closely packed arrangement of particles. Crystalline Solids: are solids made up of crystals. When a crystalline solid is heated, it melts at a specific temperature. Amorphous Solids: the particles are not arranged in a regular pattern. Plastics, rubber, and glass are amorphous solids. Unlike a crystalline solid, an amorphous solid does not melt at a distinct temperature. Instead, it may become softer and softer or change into other substances. Liquid: has a definite volume but no shape of its own. Without a container, a liquid spreads into a wide, shallow puddle. Fluid: a substance that can easily flow. Surface Tension: is the result of an inward pull among the molecules of a liquid that brings the molecules on the surface closer together. Due to surface tension, the surface of water can act like a sort of skin. Viscosity: a liquid s resistance to flowing. Gas: a state of matter with no definite shape or volume. Like a liquid, a gas is a fluid. Unlike a liquid, however, a gas can change volume very easily. If you put a gas in a closed container, the gas particles will either spread apart of be squeezed together as they fill that container. CHANGES OF STATE [Chapter 3 Section 2 of textbook] Melting: the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Melting Point: the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid. Because melting point is a characteristic property of a substance, chemists often compare melting points when trying to identify an unknown material. The melting point of pure water, for example, is 0 o C. At its melting point, the particles of a solid substance are vibrating so fast that they break free from their fixed positions. Freezing: the change of state from a liquid to a solid. It is the reverse of melting. At its freezing temperature, the particles of liquid are moving so slowly that they begin to form regular patterns. Vaporization: the change of state from a liquid to a gas. Vaporization takes place when the particles in a liquid gain enough energy to form a gas. There are two main types - evaporation and boiling. 5

6 Evaporation: is when vaporization takes place only on the surface of a liquid. Boiling: occurs when a liquid changes to a gas below its surface as well as at the surface. Boiling Point: the temperature at which a liquid boils. As with melting points, chemists use boiling points to help identify an unknown substance. Condensation: the change from the gaseous to the liquid state of matter; opposite of vaporization. Condensation occurs when particles in a gas lose enough thermal energy to form a liquid. Sublimation: occurs when the surface particles of a solid gain enough energy that they form a gas. During sublimation, particles of a solid do not pass through the liquid state as they form a gas. GAS BEHAVIOR [Chapter 3 Section 3 of textbook] Pressure: the force exerted on a surface divided by the total area over which the force is exerted. Pressure = Force/Area Boyle s Law: a principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. In the 1600s, Boyle measured the volumes of gases at different pressures. Boyle found that when the pressure of gas at constant temperature is increased, the volume of the gas decreases. When the pressure is decreased, the volume increases. This relationship between the pressure and the volume of gas is called Boyle s Law. Charle s Law: a principle that describes the relationship between the temperature and volume of a gas at constant pressure. Jacques Charles found that when the temperature of a gas is increased at constant pressure, its volume increases. When the temperature of a gas is decreased at constant pressure, its volume decreases. This principle is called Charles s Law. 6

7 CHAPTER 4: ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE INTRODUCTION TO ATOMS [Chapter 4 Section 1 of textbook] Atom: is the smallest particle of an element. Dalton s Atomic Theory: John Dalton thought that atoms were like smooth, hard balls that could not be broken into smaller pieces. Summary of his ideas are: All elements are composed of atoms that cannot be divided. All atoms of the same element are exactly alike and have the same mass. Atoms are different and have different masses. An atom of one element cannot be changed into an atom of a different element. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in any chemical change, only rearranged. Every compound is composed of atoms of different elements, combined in a specific ratio. Thomson Model: In 1897, J.J. Thomson suggested that atoms have negatively charged electrons embedded in a positive sphere. Electrons: a negatively charged particle that is found outside the nucleus of an atom. Rutherford Model: In 1911, Ernest Rutherford and his team conducted a Gold Foil Experiment determining that an atom was mostly empty space with an atom s positive charge clustered in a tiny region in its center called the nucleus. Nucleus: the center core of the atom. Protons: a positively charged particle that is part of an atom s nucleus. Bohr s Model: In 1913, Niels Bohr suggested that electrons move in specific orbits around the nucleus of an atom. Energy Level: the specific amount of energy an electron has. Modern Atomic Model: In 1932, James Chadwick discovered another particle in the nucleus of atoms. This new particle was hard to detect because if has nearly the same mass as a proton. Since it was electrically neutral, the particles was called a neutron. The modern model describes an atom as consisting of a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud-like region of moving electrons. Neutron: a small particle in the nucleus of the atom, with no electrical charge. 7

8 Atomic Number: the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Isotopes: Although all atoms of an element have the same number of protons, their number of neutrons can vary. Atoms with the same number of protons and a different number of neutrons are called isotopes. Mass Number: an isotope is identified by is mass number, which is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. ORGANIZING THE ELEMENTS [Chapter 4 Section 2 of textbook] Mendeleev s Periodic Table: By 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev published his first periodic table noticing that a pattern of properties appeared when he arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic mass. Atomic Mass: is the average mass of all isotopes of an element. Periodic Table: a chart of the elements showing the repeating pattern of their properties. The properties of an element can be predicted from its location in the periodic table. The table is organized in horizontal rows called periods. The elements of the modern periodic table fall into 18 vertical columns, or groups. The periodic table has one square for each element. Each square includes the element s atomic number, chemical symbol, name, and atomic mass. Chemical Symbol: A one-or two-letter representation of an element. Plasma: a state of matter that consists of a gas-like mixture of free electrons and nuclei of atoms that have been stripped of electrons. Nuclear Fusion: is a process in which two atomic nuclei combine, forming a larger nucleus and releasing huge amounts of energy. Nuclear fusion, which occurs in stars on a huge scale, combines smaller nuclei into larger nuclei, creating heavier elements. METALS [Chapter 4 Section 3 of textbook] Physical Properties: The physical properties of metals include shininess, malleability, ductility, and conductivity. Malleable: a material that can be hammered or rolled into flat sheets and other shapes. Ductile: a material that can be pulled out, or drawn, into a long wire. Conductivity: is the ability of an object to transfer heat or electricity to another object. Reactivity: the ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with other elements and compounds. The reactivity of metals tends to decrease as you move from left to right across the periodic table. 8

9 Alkali Metals: the metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium on the periodic table. They react with other elements by losing one electron. These metals are so reactive that they are never found as uncombined elements in nature. Instead, they are only found in compounds. Alkaline Earth Metals: Group 2 of the periodic table. Each is fairly hard, gray-white, and a good conductor of electricity. Alkaline earth metals react by losing two electrons. These elements are not as reactive as the metals in Group 1, but they are more reactive than most other metals. Like the Group 1 metals, the Group 2 metals are never found uncombined in nature. Transition Metals: The elements in Groups 3 through 12. The transition metals include most of the familiar metals, are hard and shiny. They are good conductors of electricity. Many of these metals form colorful compounds. Metals in Mixed Groups: Only some of the elements in Groups 13 through 15 of the periodic table are metals. These metals are not nearly as reactive as those on the left side of the periodic table. Lanthanides: are soft, malleable, shiny metals with high conductivity. They are mixed with more common metals to make alloys. Different lanthanides are usually found together in nature. They are difficult to separate from one another because they all share very similar properties. Alloy: is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element, usually another metal. Actinides: Of the actinides, only actinium (Ac), thorium (Th), protactinium (Pa), and uranium (U) occur naturally on Earth. All of the other elements after uranium were created artificially in laboratories. The nuclei of these elements are very unstable, meaning that they break apart very quickly into smaller nuclei. In fact, many of these elements are so unstable that they last for only a fraction of a second after they are made. Synthetic Elements: Elements with atomic numbers higher than 92 are sometimes described as synthetic elements because they are not found naturally on Earth. Instead, elements that follow uranium are made - or synthesized - when nuclear particles are forced to crash into each other. Particle Accelerators: To make even heavier elements (with atomic numbers above 95), scientists use powerful machines to move atomic nuclei faster and faster until they have reached very high speeds. If these fast-moving nuclei crash into the nuclei of other elements with enough energy, the particles can sometimes combine into a single nucleus. 9

10 NONMETALS AND METALLOIDS [Chapter 4 Section 4 of textbook] Nonmetal: is an element that lacks most of the properties of a metal. Most nonmetals are poor conductors of electricity and heat and are reactive with other elements. Solid nonmetals are dull and brittle. Ten of the 16 nonmetals are gases at room temperature. Nonmetal: is an element that lacks most of the properties of a metal. Most nonmetals are poor conductors of electricity and heat and are reactive with other elements. Solid nonmetals are dull and brittle. The Carbon Family: Each element in the carbon family has atoms that can gain, lose, or share four electrons when reacting with other elements. In Group 14, only carbon in a nonmetal. The Nitrogen Family: Group 15 contains two nonmetals, nitrogen and phosphorous. These nonmetals usually gain or share three electrons when reacting with other elements. Diatomic Molecule: consists of two atoms. The Oxygen Family : Group 16 contains three nonmetals - oxygen, sulfur, and selenium. These elements usually gain or share two electrons when reacting with other elements. The Halogen Family: Group 17 contains fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. These elements are also known as the halogens, which means salt forming. All but astatine are nonmetals, and all share similar properties. All of the halogens are very reactive, and the uncombined elements are dangerous to humans. Though the halogens elements are dangerous, many of the compounds that halogens form are quire useful. The Noble Gases: The elements in Group 18 do not ordinarily form compounds because atoms of noble gases are usually unreactive. Even so, scientists have been able to form some compounds of the heavy noble gases (Kr, Xe) in the laboratory. All the noble gases exist in Earth s atmosphere, but only in small amounts. Hydrogen: Alone in the upper left corner of the periodic table - the element with the simplest and smallest atoms. Each hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron. Some hydrogen atoms also have neutrons. Because of the chemical properties of hydrogen differ very much from those of the other elements, it really cannot be grouped into a family. Although hydrogen makes up more than 90 percent of the atoms in the universe, it makes up only 1 percent of the mass of Earth s crust, oceans, and atmosphere. Hydrogen is rarely found on Earth as a pure element. The Metalloids: have some characteristics of both metals and nonmetals. All are solids at room temperature. They are brittle, hard, and somewhat reactive. The most useful property of the metalloids is their varying ability to conduct electricity. Semiconductors: are substances that can conduct electricity under some conditions but not under other conditions. 10

11 RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS [Chapter 4 Section 5 of textbook] Radioactive Decay: the atomic nuclei of unstable isotopes release fast-moving particles and energy. Radioactive Decay: the atomic nuclei of unstable isotopes release fast-moving particles and energy. There are three major forms of radiation produced during the radioactive decay of an unstable nucleus. Natural radioactive decay can produce alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Discovery of Radioactivity: In 1896, the French scientist Henri Becqueral discovered the effects of radioactive decay quite by accident while studying a mineral containing uranium. Radioactivity: the spontaneous emission of radiation by an unstable nucleus. Alpha Particle: an alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons and is positively charged. Beta Particle: is a fast-moving electron given off by a nucleus during radioactive decay. Gamma Radiation: consists of high-energy waves, similar to X-rays. Gamma radiation (also called gamma rays) has no charge and does not cause a change in either the atomic mass or the atomic number. Tracers: are radioactive isotopes that can be followed through the steps of a chemical reaction or an industrial process. 11