STUDIES ON THE SHOLA FORESTS OF KERALA

Transcription

1 KFRI Research Report 158 STUDIES ON THE SHOLA FORESTS OF KERALA K. Swarupanandan N. Sasidharan K.C. Chacko S. Chand Basha KERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE PEECHI, THRISSUR December 1998 Pages: 143

2 CONTENTS Page File Index to Families i r Summary v r Introduction 1 r Study Area 7 r Floristic Studies 14 r Community Ecological Studies 86 r Regeneration Ecology 114 r Synthesis 123 r Appendices 125 r Bibliography 139 r

3 INDEX TO FAMILIES Families Acanthaceae Adiantaceae Amaranthaceae Angiopteridaceae Apiaceae Apoc ynaceae Aquifoliaceae Araceae Araliaceae Arecaceae Asclepiadaceae Aspleniaceae Asteraceae Athyriaceae Balanophoraceae Balsaminaceae Begoniaceae Berberidaceae Blechnaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Buxaceae Campanulaceae Caprifoliaceae Caryophyllaceae Celastraceae Clusiaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae Comaceae Cucurbitaceae Cyatheaceae Pages Families C yperaceae Daphniphyllaceae Dennstaedtiaceae Droseraceae Dryopteridaceae Elaeagnaceae Elaeocarpaceae Ericaceae Eriocaulaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Flacourtiaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Gesneriaceae Gleicheniaceae Grammitidaceae Haemodoraceae Haloragaceae Hemionitidaceae Hymenophyllaceae Hypericaceae Hypoxidaceae Icacinaceae Iridaceae Juncaceae Lamiaceae Lauraceae Lentibulariaceae Liliaceae Lindsaeaceae Lobeliaceae Pages

4 Families Loganiaceae Lomariopsidaceae Loranthaceae Lycopodiaceae Lythraceae Magnoliaceae Malvaceae Melastomataceae Meliaceae Menispermaceae Moraceae Myrsinaceae Myrtaceae Oleaceae Oleandraceae Onagraceae Ophioglossaceae Orchidaceae Orobanchaceae Oxalidaceae Passifloraceae Piperaceae Pittosporaceae Plantaginaceae Poaceae Podostemaceae Pol ygalaceae Polygonaceae Polypodiaceae Portulacaceae Primulaceae Proteaceae Psilotaceae Pages Families Pages Pteridaceae 31 Ranunculaceae 65 Rhamnaceae 65 Rosaceae 65 Rubiaceae 66 Rutaceae 69 Sabiaceae 70 Sapindaceae 70 Sapotaceae 70 Saxifragaceae 70 Scrophulariaceae 70 Selaginellaceae 31 Sinopteridaceae 32 Smilacaceae 85 Solanaceae 71 Staphyleaceae 72 S ymplocaceae 72 Ternstroemiaceae 72 Thelypteridaceae 32 Th ymeleaceae 73 Tiliaceae 73 Ulmaceae 73 Urticaceae 73 Vacciniaceae 74 Valerianaceae 75 Verbenaceae 75 Violaceae 75 Vitaceae 76 Vittariaceae 33 Zingiberaceae 85

5 SUMMARY 'Shola forests' (s. l.) are tropical forest vegetations comprising subtropical hill forests and the montane temperate forests, generally inhabiting over 1,500 m asl. The present study on the shola forests of Kerala has generated bench mark information on the floristics, community ecology and forest dynamics of the two major chunks of the shola forests, the Mannavan shola and the Eravikulam National Park, both situated in the Idukki District of the Kerala State. A total of 543 plant species belonging to Pteridophytes and Angiosperms were collected from the study area. Nearly one fifth of the taxa (109 spp.) are 'endemic' and one fourth (128 spp.) 'rare'. Twenty six species belonged to the threatened category. One taxa (Sinarundinaria microphylla) proved to be a new record for Peninsular India and some are new records to Kerala. Some specimens belonging to the genera Syzygium, Balanophora, Litsea and a few other genera which could not be identified at the moment may probably turnout to be new taxa. The value of the shola forests in the context of biodiversity conservation therefore demands serious attention. Community ecological studies were conducted by establishing six 0.25 ha semi-permanent plots across an elevational gradient from 1,600 to 2,100 m asl. Six 0.1 ha releves, each comprising ten non-contiguous 100 m 2 quadrats distributed in the entire elevational range were also studied for phytosociology. Enumeration of all individuals 1 cm dbh were done in the semi-permanent plots. In the releves, only those individuals which are 10 cm dbh were measured. The data were analysed for details of structure and composition, dominance, species richness, biodiversity content, and population structure of selected tree species. When only the 10 dbh class was considered, the tree community was a Cinnamomum wightii type showing cent per cent constancy in all the releves studied. A constancy value of 70% was shown by 5 species and the rest of about 81 species showed a value less than that. Dominant species were constituted by 6-17 species, their aggregate Relative Importance Value Index (RIVI) ranged between per cent. The most dominant tree species in the community were: Cinnamomum wightii, Litsea sp., Mastixia arborea, Hydnocarpus alpina, lsonandra candolleana, Persea macrantha, Syzygium sp. and Gomphandra coriacea. The less frequent tree species accounted for 8-19 species with their importance value ranging between 18.30%. Up to 1,950 m asl, the basal area of the stand was fairly high with a mean of m 2 ha -1 ; further up. it decreased drastically to an average of 56.2 m 2 ha -1. Even within the elevational belt 1,600-1,950 m asl, the basal area showed variability, ranging between 56.7 m 2 ha -1 and m 2 ha -1. This indicates either difference in stand history of the sites or difference in species composition or both. Of the total of 1,186 trees measured in the shola forests, the highest diameter measured was cm for a species of Syzygium at about 1,800 m asl. From 1,850 m as1 onwards there was a gradual reduction in the highest dbh and as the elevation reaches 2,100 m asl, it goes down to 72.5 cm. The total number of species of herbs and/or shrubs always outnumbered the number of tree species at all the undisturbed shola forest sites. Diversity of herbs was very high in grassland ecotones and in disturbed (eg. burned) region in comparison to the undisturbed regions. But along the elevational gradient, no such appreciable increase was observed. V

6 Species richness of trees, as well as all species taken together of the semi-permanent plots showed a decreasing trend with increasing elevation (ie, 94 spp. at 1,850 m and 84 spp. at 2,100 m). However, in the forest-grassland ecotone there were 112 species in comparison to the maximum number of 94 species observed at the undisturbed plot. Gregarious occurrence of the reed bamboo, Sinarudinaria densifolia and the substorey shrub, Strobilanthes homotropa, accounted for the high values of density 1 cm dbh in some of the plots (eg. 11,700 ha -1 to 27,360 ha -1 ). The density of trees 10 cm dbh in the shola forests is comparable to that of the evergreen forests. A maximum of 1180 trees 10 cm dbh was encountered in a hectare of the shola forests at 1,700 m asl; the minimum being 510 trees ha -1. There is no general trend in the number of trees 10 cm dbh across the elevational gradient, except that at very high elevations there is marked reduction of number of stems. Species diversity of plants 1 cm dbh was highest at about 1,950 m asl, from there upwards it decreased. Such a trend however is not observed for species 10 cm dbh. Shannon's index of diversity for the shola forests is only comparable to that of moist deciduous or semi-evergreen forests and never reached closer to that of evergreen forests. Within the shola forests it was highest at 1,950 m as1 and thereafter it decreased. The dominance spectrum indicated by Simpson's index is highest at lower elevations and least at 2,100 m as1 in the shola forests. Evenness of species populations decreased from 1,850 m as1 upwards indicating an increase in rarity (sparseness) of species populations with increasing elevation. Although the indices of diversity of the shola tree life form spectrum is less in comparison to that of the wet evergreen forests, the particular segment of biodiversity containing many temperate tree species, not represented elsewhere in the South, is very unique. Results of population analysis did not provide evidence of any serious constraints in the natural regeneration of trees within the shola groves. The tree population with mean values of 9688 nnestablished seedlings, 2223 established seedlings and 3910 saplings in a hectare of shola forest shows uninterrupted sylvigenesis. However, the process of invasion of the shola species to adjacent grasslands is very slow and might be an area for further research. Taken the tree species individually, some had all life stages represented while in others some stages were missing. These patterns of regeneration were met with in all constancy categories of species. Gregarious growth of reed-bamboos within the shola groves are considered a result of past invasion of tire into the groves from the vast expanse of the surrounding grasslands. Enhancement of diversity of these stands through regeneration augmentation would be a meaningful venture. Regeneration augmentation would be desirable in other degraded shola forests too. Ecotonal tree species are to be given priority in such planting operations. Mannavan Shola and the Eravikulam National Park are two living musea of shola forests. Of these, only Eravikulam has the status of a National Park. Mannavan Shola, the largest shola forest patch in the State, which contains many botanical rarities and novelties, should also be considered for a better protective status. Mannavan Shola, together with other larger adjacent shola patches (such as the Pullaradi Shola, Idivara Shola, Pambadam Shola, etc) are suitable candidate groves for consideration of constituting a shola forest sanctuary. vi

7 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The cretaceous mountain building activities of the past has moulded a mega-relief on the west coast of Peninsular India, the Western Ghats. This relief, with its ascents and descents as it traverses from Cape Camorin to the Karwar in Gujarat (Meher-Homji, 1978) has provided very many kaleidoscopic biological, anthropological and cultural niches. The distribution patterns of the rare, endemic and endangered species along the Western Ghats really tune to this. The proliferation of the relief-dependent niches along the Western Ghats is also reflected in the kinds of vegetation types and the shola forests is one among them (Gadgil and Meher-Homji, 1990; Meher-Homji, 1984, 1990). 1.1 Shola forests: Origin of the name The term 'shola' is a corrupt form of the Tamil word 'chdlai' borrowed and incorporated into forest typology by Schimper (1903). In Tamil, the term 'chdlai' (Malayalam: chdla) refers to a cold place, a thicket, etc. Both 'shola' and 'sholai vanam' glorified ancient tamil literature, songs and films literally and all these connotations refer to streamlets and the associated forests. An examination of words related to 'cholai' (T)* in the Indo-European languages tell us that the word probably had an origin from Sanskrit, jal, which means water. The word jal stands more than for water to refer to 'the liquid property'. Liquids flow (move) automatically across level differences and the meaning of 'motion' is inherent in the word 'jal", as is also evidenced in its transformations: jalu (Te; to flow gently) and chalu, chal (M) which mean 'a streamlet' or 'a furrow', indicating the connotation of water. The word chdlai (T) presumably originated from jal (S) through a series of intermediaries such as jalika (S, a spider), jolha (H; a weaver) and chol (H), choli (S), jauli (M), etc, all meaning dress. While chol (H), choli (S), jauli (M), all referred to clothes as covering on the body, the vegetal clothing on streams (chal, M; streamlet) and valleys were named chdlai and chdla in Tamil and Malayalam respectively. Gradually chdlai transformed to shola (E) through the intermediary form sholai. Perhaps, at the time when the terms were only differentiating, the word chdlai (T) was used interchangeably to refer to both 'streamlet' and 'forest associated with streamlets'. At any rate the streamlet connotation is undisputable, as the patchy shola forests are found distributed too. 1.2 Shola forests: History of the vegetation type Forestry in the modem sense of focussed activity on wooded and manageable geographic vegetal units perhaps started in India since the British period. Forest Working Plans and manuals written for regulation of forestry activities included different forest types and the term * E: English; M: Malayalam; S: Sanskrit; T Tamil; Te: Telugu 1

8 'shola(s)' enriched the nomenclature of forest types. These registers virtually carried the Schimperian (1903) sense of the term (Chandrasekharan, 1962 d). Following the British colonial supremacy during the 18th and 19th centuries in India, the British Forestry Academician, Champion (1936) advocated an elaborate forest type classification of the country. Later, he enlarged his classification jointly with his colleague (Champion and Seth, 1968). These documents equated the term 'shola forests' with 'stunted forests of the high elevational belts'. Meher-Homji (1984) made a reclassification of the Indian vegetation types and he clubbed the subtropical hill forests together with the shola forests (montane wet temperate forests) for a slightly wider application of the latter term. Elevation is one among the main factors dictating the local climate, which influences the patterns of species distributions (flora) and the vegetation types. Along the Western Ghats, the evergreen forests inhabit lower elevations up to 1,500 m msl (Fig. I. I), which gradually transforms to subtropical hill forests between the elevational range 1,500 to 1,800 m msl (Figs. 1.2 & 1.4). The subtropical hill forests in tum, as the elevation ascends, merge with the patchy shola forests (s. str.; Figs. 1.5 & 1.6). Thus, the shola forests, in the wider sense of the term (as it is currently understood), inhabit altitudes above 1,500 m msl. The shola forests actually represent a continuation of the evergreen forests in response to the elevational gradient, the sequence being: Wet Evergreen Forests + Subtropical Hill Forests + Montane Wet Temperate Forests (Figs ). With ascent in elevation, the stands show a retarded height growth and in the montane forests, the height is hardly m (Figs.l.5 & 1.8). 1.3 Shola forests: The Relevance of study The shola forests are unique montane vegetations occupying temperate habitats in tropical latitudes and are regarded as relictual communities. These forests are high altitude gallery forests restricted to valleys, depressions and especially along folds of hills and water courses. The shola forests are of high ecological significance in protecting the headwaters of rivers. They also help in retaining soil moisture and very slow release of rain water. These forests are found extensively along the High Ranges of Kerala and the Nilgiri Plateaus in Tamil Nadu. Only scanty information is available on the flora, diversity, vegetation structure and dynamics of the shola forests. The present study is intended to fill this information gap. Thus, the specific objectives of the project were: I. To make a floristic account of the shola forests, by concentrating the studies in the Idukki District, especially Mannavan shola and Eravikulam. 2. To generate structural and phytosociologic information on these forests including stocking, floristic diversity, altitudinal specificities in species distribution, diameter distribution, etc. 3. To make observations on the regeneration patterns of the tree species in the shola forests. Three major aspects studied were: (1). floristic, (2). community ecological, and (3). regeneration ecology. 2

9 Figures 1.1 & 1.2 Landscapes showing the gradual transformation of wet evergreen forests to subtropical hill forests and montane forests. Fig. 1.1 Ridges of the New Amarambalam forests, clothed with luxurious evergreen forest vegetation and the hill tops with high altitude grasslands (in which the patchy wet montane forests are sprinkled; not seen in the picture). Fig. 1.2 Landscape of the subtropical hill forests gradually merging with the montane wet temperate forests. 3

10

11 ~ 5

12 ~ "',. ).: Figures 1.7 & 1.8 Pictures showing stunted trees of the sholas. The stands in the montane hill forests hardly grow over 15 m height and many tree species. the stems are characteristically crooked. as in Figure

13 Chapter 2 STUDY AREA 2.1 Introduction The shola forests as redefined by Meher-Homji (1986) includes forest vegetations of the Peninsular India, growing above 1,500 m asl approximately. In terms of this broader definition, shola forests are found all along the upper reaches of the Western Ghats, where the elevation goes beyond 1,500 m asl. The relief of the Western Ghats however is not uniform throughout its entire length and hence the distribution of the shola forests. The Western Ghats reaches the highest points at Anamudi (2,695 m asl; Kerala) the highest point south of the Himalayas, and Dodabetta in Nilgiris (2,638 m asl; Tamilnadu). It is a natural law that the height of the mountain peak could only be proportionate to the basal area supporting it. Tuning to this law, the High Ranges in Kerala, together with the Pulney Hills and the Kodaikanal on the Tamilnadu side (Anamalais), form an elevated plateau supporting the Anamudi, south of the Palakkad gap and the Nilgiris plateau supporting the Dodabetta peak, north of the Palakkad gap. These are the two plateau regions of the Western Ghats supporting shola forests profoundly (Chandrasekharan, 1962a; Champion and Seth, 1968). In addition, as already mentioned, smaller extents of shola forests are met along the crests and on either side of the crests all along the Western Ghats, depending on the relief features. The present studies, as already mentioned elsewhere, comprise of three components: 1. floristic studies 2. community ecological studies and 3. regeneration ecological studies. The studies were mainly focused at two locations (Fig. 2.1): 1. The Mannavan shola, where a preponderance of 'subtropical hill forests' is met with, and 2. The Eravikulam National Park, where the counter component of the shola forests, the 'montane wet temperate forests' are the characteristic wooded vegetation. Both the locations fall within the Munnar Division of Idukki District. Kerala State. 2.2 The Mannavan Shola Physiography: The Mannavan Shola (Fig. 2.2) forms the largest shola forest patch in the Kerala State, with an approximate size of 5.18 km2. This forest patch is situated in the Idukki District, falling within the Marayur Forest Range of Munnar Division. The shola is located within 10 o 10' 00" to 10 o 12' 18" N latitudes and 77 o 09' 50" to 77 o 12' 18" E longitudes. The altitude ranges between 1,600-2,400 m asl. The forest is seen as a continuous patch from 1,600 upto 2,100 rn asl, above which it is seen as small patches (in Idlimottai region) dispersed among the grasslands. Three other major sholas, Pambadam Shola (Half a square mile), Pullaradi Shola (400 acres) (both in Vattavada Beat) and Idivara Shola (150 acres) lie adjacent to the Mannavan Shola Climate: The area receives both South West and North East monsoon, the South West being the prominent one. The average annual rainfall ranges between 2, mm. The

14 coldest months are December and January when the minimum temperature goes down upto 5 o - 6 C even at lower elevations. There are 4-5 dry months, spanning between December and April. The average minimum temperature of the coldest month (January) is 9 o C (mean for 10 days in the permanent plot). The minimum temperature in the patchy shola forests (ca. 2,100 m asl) may go down to a 3-5 C down than this, but never reaches O o C inside the forests Vegetation: The vegetation comprises mostly of Southern Subtropical Hill Forests which gradually transform to the Southern Montane Wet Temperare Forests (Champion and Seth, 1968) towards the top (Idlimottai regions). Both these forest types are now considered under a single category, Tropical Montane Forests (Meher Homji, 1986, 1989) Habitations: There is a Muthuva tribal colony at Gudalar situated along the north western borders of Mannavan Shola and another at Kulachivayal situated to the north of the Shola. Three other colonies namely, Perumala, Puthur and Kanthallur, inhabited mainly by Tamilian people are also situated on the outskirts of the Shola. Some areas in the Mannavan Shola were given on lease for establishing housing colonies during 1960s. This is evidenced by remnances of a number of foundations of houses, presence of the planted economic species like orange, apple, etc, in the Perumala, Kalipettumala and Thalachor Kadavu regions of the shola. The habitations were later translocated to other areas by a court order. About seven kilometers of the Kanthalloor-Sethu Parvathipurarn (SP Puram) road traverses the shola and hence the accessibility is good. The right of way to Devikulam (via. Kanthalloor-Sethu Parvathipuram road), the right of water and the right of cutting small timber for agricultural purposes are the claims admitted to the local people. The people of Perumala, Kanthalloor, Puthur are wholly dependent on Mannavan shola for firewood, timber, and wood for various agricultural purposes. 2.3 Eravikulam National Park Physiography: The Eravikulam National Park (Fig. 2.3) situated in the Idukki District at an average elevation of 2,100 m asl, between the latitudes 10 o 05' to 10 o 20 N and 77 o 00' to 77 o 10 E longitudes (Rice, 1984). Peaked by Anamudi (2,695 m), the highest peak in South India, the Eravikulam National Park can be considered the literal roof of the Western Ghats. On the north, it is bordered by the Anamalai Sanctuary (Tamilnadu) and south by the the Tata Tea Estates and the west by the Malayattur Forest Division and in east by the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary and the Munnar Forest Division (Fig. 2.3) Geology and soil: The rock formations in the region have been dated to the Archean igneous series consisting of gneiss with minerals like silica, feldspars, muscovite, biotite etc. (cf. Karunakaran et al., 1997). The soils are basically loam, acidic and with high contents of organic carbon (often in the form of peat in grasslands) and nitrogen Climate: The heavy rainfall received by the region averages to a quantum of over 5,200 mm per annum. This pluvial quantum is contributed by SW and NE monsoons but remains unimodal in a graphic representation (Fig. 2.4). The high rainfall swathed with fog and chilly 8

15 winds make the rainy season very hostile. The elevated position of the Park (average 2,000 m) has a remarkable influence on the atmospheric temperature, the thermometer readings being pushed down to a cooler climate compared to the valleys and downs. The absolute diurnal temperature oscillates between -3 to 27' o C. The mean maximum temperature is found to be 15.3 o C, and the mean minimum -3 C (Rice, 1984). January is the coldest month and May, the warmest Vegetation: The Park landscape is a refugium of various plant and animal lifescapes of higher elevations in the peninsula and the patchy montane forests and the vast panoramic expanses of high elevational grasslands. In addition, the park also subtends smaller extents of subtropical hill forests in some portions of the foot hills where the elevation is low. A vegetal map of the park is also available (Menon, 1997) Animals: The Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius), a highly endangered animal, inhabits the grasslands in the Park (Figs. 2.5 & 2.6) and the major objective of the park is the conservation of tahr populations. 9

16 Figure 2.1 Map of Kerala showing the study areas. Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam National Park are the two areas, associated with the present study. Both the areas fall within the Devicolam Taluk of Idukki District. Mannavan Shola occupies the downward triangular projection of the Marayur Range. 10

17 I,.- Figures 2.2 Slightly enlarged map of Mannavan Shola. Figure 2.3 Map of Eravikulam National Park and the surrounding regions..

18 100 s 80.( a" 20 0 % days with: frost sun rain. E E K = m.- K m U 500 r Number of days I r n / 0. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec winter I pre-monsoon I monsoon I post-monsoon SEASON Figure 2.4 Climatic parameters for Vaguvarai near Eravikulam National Park (Reproduced from Rice, 1984). 12

19 Figures 2.5 & 2.6 Two views of the tahr he~ from the Eravikulam National Park. Tahr is an endangered animal and forms the main attraction of the Eravikulam NP, besides the rolling grasslands, the patchy shola forests, and the chill climate. 13

20 Chapter 3 FLORISTIC STUDIES 3.1 Introduction For most vegetation types in India, the pioneering botanical studies emerged out of the amature botanical interests of practising foresters. However, the shola forests were largely neglected because: (i) they were of no timber value, (ii). the extent of the shola forests is small and so the study on it too, and (iii). the sholas mostly occupy less accessible and hostile climatic regions. Therefore, it would not be surprising at all to see that the literature base on shola forests is thin, compared to other vegetal types. 3.2 Review of Literature Limited information on the floristic elements of the shola forests are found in the Working Plans, the working documents for Forest Divisions. Much floristic information on the vegetation type is found in a fragmented state in earlier floristic works like Wight's ( ) Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, Hooker's ( ) Flora of British India, Gamble and Fischer's ( ) Flora of the Presidency of Madras, and other regional and local Floras. However, a flora particularly devoted to shola forests is lacking. The conventional taxonomic practice is to study the plants (and animals) of selected geographic areas and are in no way, on the basis of vegetation types. The result is that floras exclusively devoted to individual vegetation types are wanting altogether and a literature search only proves the fact in the context of the shola forests too. Perhaps the first monographic floristic account on the shola forests was that of Fyson's ( ) Flora of the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill-tops and floristic particulars of other kinds of vegetations also occupy much coverage here. The flora and vegetation of the shola forests of the Nilgiris and Pulneys and Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu were relatively well studied in comparison with that of Kerala (Gupta, 1960a. 1960b, 1962a; Mathew, 1959, 1969; Fyson, 1932; Sharma et al., 1977). A comparable floristic account of the shola forests of Kerala is due to the pioneering studies of Shetty and Vivekananthan (1968, , 1972, 1973a, 1973b, 1973c 1991), Sebastine and Vivekananthan (1967) and others. In no way, were these treatments intended as floristic monographs of shola forests; but it so happened that shola forests dominated hill stations, which formed the geographic frame of the study areas. Taxonomic studies are required for assessing the biotic resources and their management in an ecologically and scientifically sound and sustainable way. In this sense, taxonomic studies should precede ecological studies. The scope of floristic accounts of the shola forests of Kerala, focusing exclusively on the vegetation type therefore cannot be over-emphasized. 3.3 Materials and Methods Area of study: The study was focused exclusively on the two major natural shola forest chunks of the Idukki District: (i) The Mannavan Shola, where a preponderance of the 14

21 subtropical hill forests is met with, and (ii) the Eravikulam National Park, where the wooded vegetation is largely composed of montane wet temperate forests. The physiographic and climatic details of the areas are detailed in Chapter Methods: From 1994 onwards regular field trips were organized to Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam National Park and plant collections were made, herbaria prepared and conventional taxonomic studies made by consulting floras, monographs and the regional Herbaria: (i). the Kerala Forest Research Institute Herbarium, Peechi, Thrissur (KFRI), (ii). the Madras Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore (MH) and (iii) Calicut University Herbarium, Calicut (CALI). All the herbarium specimens are deposited at KFRI. The results of floristic studies are treated under three sections: (i) floristic analysis, (ii) taxonomic enumeration of species, and (iii) list of endemic and rare species. Owing to space considerations, the descriptions of taxa in the enumeration part have been kept to a bare minimum. Author citations and selected few synonyms alone have been given. Standard taxonomic works dealing with correct citations, extended lists of synonyms, detailed descriptions, illustrations and identification keys otherwise exist among the regional floras (Gamble and Fischer, ; Fyson, ; Nair and Henry, 1983; Henry et al., 1987, 1991), and we hope the excessive compression of the taxonomic part does not become an impediment in itself. 3.4 Floristic Analysis From the shola forests and ecotones of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam National Park, 543 species belonging to 346 genera and 126 families were collected. These include 463 Angiosperms (377 Dicots and 86 Monocots) and 80 Pteridophyte species (Fig. 3.1). The Dicots consist of 243 genera under 88 families, while the Monocots count to 59 genera under 24 families. Among the Angiosperms, 110 species are endemic to Western Ghats (89 Dicots and 21 Monocots), while among Pteridophytes, only 4 are endemics. Of the 110 Angiosperm endemics, 7 are infra-specific taxa, while among the Pteridophytes, all the 4 taxa are of infra-specific ones. Rare angiosperms constitute 64 species (49 Dicots and 15 Monocots) while among Pteridophytes, there are 35 species under these category. Floristic richness in terms of families, genera and species encountered is given in Table 3.1 Among the Pteridophytes, Aspleniaceae is the largest family with 1 genus and 12 species, followed by Polypodiaceae (6/8). Lycopodiaceae (3/7), Dryopteridaceae (3/6), Thelipteridaceae (3/5) and Pteridaceae (1/5). Among the Dicots, Asteraceae is the largest family, represented by 28 genera and 44 species followed by Fabaceae (17/33), Rubiaceae (15/26), Lamiaceae (6/13) and Balsaminaceae (1/13) and Acanthaceae (7/12). But when the tree species alone is considered Lauraceae showed maximum representation (6/7), followed by Euphorbiaceae (6/6), Rubiaceae (5/5), Myrsinaceae (3/5), Oleaceae (3/5), Myrtaceae (2/5). Rosaceae (24) and Elaeocarpaceae (1/4). Among the Monocots, Poaceae is the largest family with the representation of 20 genera and 25 species followed by Orchidaceae (16/24), Cyperaceae (7/1 l), and Commelinaceae (2/6). 15

22 Pteridophytes Aspleniaceae 1 Pol ypodiaceae 6 Lycopodiaceae 3 Dryopteridaceae 3 Thelipteridaceae 3 Pteridaceae Dicots - Asteraceae Fabaceae Rubiaceae Lamiaceae Balsaminaceae Acanthaceae Families of tree species Monocots Lauraceae 6 Euphorbiaceae 6 Rubiaceae 5 Myrsinaceae 3 Oleaceae 3 Myrtaceae 2 Rosaceae 2 Elaeocarpaceae Poaceae Orchidaceae Cyperaceae Commelinaceae Endemic, Rare and Threatened species Lists of endemic, rare and threatened species of Pteridophytes and Angiosperms are given in tables 3.3 and 3.4 respectively. A numerical summary of the tables 3.3 and 3.4 is given in table 3.2 (also see Fig. 3.2). Taxonomic group(s) Total species Endemic species Rare species Threatened species Pteridophytes Angiosperms Total During this taxonomic study, some very rare species could also be collected. Pimpinella pulneyensis Gamble (Apiaceae), which was considered as possibly extinct and Helichrysum perlanigerum Gamble (Asteraceae) formerly collected from the high altitude grasslands in

23 Table 3.3 List of Endemic(E), Rare (R) and Threatened(T) Pteridophytes Family Species Status Pteridaceae Pteridaceae Pteridaceae Pteridaceae Selaginellaceae Sinopteridaceae Thelypteridaceae Thelypteridaceae Pteris argyraea T. Moore R Pteris confusa T. G. Walker R Pteris cretica L. R Preris linearis Poir. R Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring R T Cheilanthes farinosa (Forsk.) Kaulf. R T Pseudocyclosorus ochthodes (Kurz) Holttum E R T var. anamalayansis Manikam et Irudayaraj Pseudocyclosorus ochthodes (Kunze) Holttum E R T var. palniensis Manickam et Irudayraj Total

24 and relocated in 1980 (Henry et al., 1978; Nayar and Sastry, 1987; Kunhikrishnan, 1991) was collected from Mannavan Shola New records: Two rare Pteridophytes namely, EIaphoglossum stelligerum Sledge and Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Bory ex Willd.) Kaulf, collected from Mannavan Shola are new records to Kerala (Kumar, 1997). Sinarundinaria microphylla (Munro) Chao. & Renv., a dwarf bamboo confined to Bhutan and Khasia hills and considered to be of doubtful occurrence in India (Moulik, 1997) was collected from the grasslands of Eravikulam National Park, and is a new record to Peninsular India (Kumar and Kumar, 1997). Families Species Status Acanthaceae Andrographis neesiana Wight var. neesiana Clarke E R

25 Lamiaceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Lauraceae Pogostemon wightii Benth. E R Actinodaphne bourdillonii Gamble E R Actinodaphne salicina Meissner E R Beilschmiedia wightii (Nees) Benth. E R Cinnamomum wightii Meissner E R Litsea wightiana (Nees) Hook. f. E R 19

26 Families Lauraceae Lauraceae Loranthaceae Species Status Neolitsea jischeri Gamble E R Neolitsea scrobiculata (Meissner) Gamble E R Dendrophthoe memecylifolia E R Onagraceae Circaea alpina L. ssp. imaicola (Asch. & Magn.) Kitamura Onagraceae Oenothera tetrapetala Cav. Orobanchaceae Campbellia cytinoides Wight E Orobanchaceae Christisonia bicolor Grand Piperaceae Piper wightii Miq. E Podostemaceae Zeylanidium olivaceum (Gard.) Engl. Rosaceae Photinia serratifolia (Desf.) Kalkman Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Sapotaceae Scrophulariaceae S ymplocaceae S ymplocaceae S ymplocaceae Temstroemiaceae Urticaceae Valerianaceae Valerianaceae Vitaceae Hedyotis buifolia Bedd. E R Hedyotis stylosa R. Br. ex Wight & Am. E R Hedyotis swertioides Hook. f. E R T Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don E R Lasianthus acuminatus Wight Neanotis monosperma (Wall. ex Wight. & Am.) W. H. Lewis Ophiorrhiza grandiflora Wight Pavetra breviflora DC. Isonandra candolleana Wight Pedicularis perrotterii Benth. R Symplocos anamalayana Bedd. Symplocos macrophylla Wall. ex A. DC. E R subsp. rosea (Bedd.) Nooteb. Symplocos pendula Wight Gordonia obtusa Wall. Pouzolzia wightii Benn. Valeriana beddomei Clarke Valeriana hookeriana Wight &Am. Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) Alston - - T T

27 Families Species Status Monocotyledons 4recaceae 4raceae Z yperaceae Eriocaulaceae Liliaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orc hidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Orchidaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Smilacaceae Calamus gamblei Beccari ex Beccari & Hook. f. Arisaema attenuatum Barnes & Fischer Fimbristylis kingii Clarke Eriocaulon pectinatum Ruhl. Lilium wallichianum Schultes & Schult. f. var. neilgherrense (Wight) Hara Anoectochilus elatus Lindl. Brachycorythis splendida Summerh. Bulbophyllumfischeri Seidenfaden Cheirostylisflabellata Wight Coelogyne mossiae Rolfe Dendrobium anamalayanum Chandrabose Eria nana A. Rich. Eria pseudoclavicaulis Blatter Habenaria elliptica Wight Habenaria hqneana Lindl. Habenaria longicorniculata Graham Habenaria perrottetiana A. Rich. Oberonia chandrasekharanii Nair et a1 Oberonia sebastiana Shetty & Vivek. Seidenfadeniella chrysantha (Alston) Sathish Agrostis peninsularis Hook. f. Arundinella vaginata Bor Sinarundinaria densifolia (Munro) Chao & Renv. Sinarundinaria microphylla (Munro) Chao & Renv. Tripogon ananthaswamianus Sreekumar et a1 Zenkeria elegans Trin. Smilax wightii A. DC. Total R R I R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

28 Figure 3.1 Bar diagram showing comparison of number of Species, Genera and Families represented across different taxonomic groups. Figure 3.2 Pie diagram showing representation of Rare and Endemic species across different taxonomic groups. 22

29 3.6 Enumeration of species PTERIDOPHYTES ADIANTACEAE Adiantum raddianum Presl A. cuneatum Langsd. & Fischer Terrestrial herbs with black stipes and tripinnate fronds. Common, mostly along roadsides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam ANGIOPTERIDACEAE Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoff. Polypodium evectum Forst. Terrestrial herbs with massive stem and bipinnate fronds. Occasional, along shaded stream banks in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium aethiopicum (Bum. f.) Becherer Trichomanes aethiopicum Burm. f.; Asplenium furcatum Thumb.; A. laserpitiifolium sensu Bedd. Epiphytic herbs with hairy stipe and bipinnate fronds. Rare, along shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Asplenium auritum Sw. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs with bipinnate or bipinnatifid fronds Rare, along stream sides in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium decrescens Kunze A. contiguum sensu T. Moore; A. caudatum sensu Hook. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Stipes grooved above and rounded below, fronds simple pinnate. Occasional, along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium erectum Bory ex Willd. A. brasiliensis sensu Bedd.; A. lunulatum var. camptorachis (Kunze) Bedd.; A. lunulatum var. erectum (Bory ex Willd.) Sm. Small epiphytic herbs with tufted stipes and simple pinnate decrescent fronds Rare, in shaded interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium formosum Willd. Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs with tufted stipes, fronds simple pinnate, decrescent. Rare. in shaded interior forests in Mannavan Shola. 23

30 Asplenium inaequilaterale Willd. A. trapeziforme sensu Bedd., non Roxb.; A. lunulatum var. trapeziforme Bedd. Terrestrial herbs with erect or suberect rhizome, stipes grooved above and rounded below, fronds simple pinnate. Very common, in shaded interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium normale D. Don A. minus Blume; A. multijrigum Wall.; A. opacrrm Kunze Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, fronds simply pinnate. Very common, in moist places in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium pnlyndnn G. Forst. A. falcatum Lam; Trichomanes adiantoides L.; Tarachia falcata (Lam.) C. Presl Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome erect, stipe grooved, rounded below, fronds simple pinnate. Rare, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium pnlyndnn G. Forst. var. bipinnatum (Sledge) Sledge A. falcatum var. bipinnatum Sledge; A. mysorense Roth; Tarachia furcata var. platyphylla C. Presl Epiphytic herbs with suberect rhizomes, stipes grooved above, fronds bipinnate Rare, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium tenuifolium D. Don Small terrestrial or lithophytic herbs with light green stipes and tripinnate fronds Rare, in moist localities or as lithophytes in shady regions in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium unilaterale Lam. A. resectum Sm.; A. trapeziforme Wall. ex Roxb.; A. erythrocaulon Blume Terrestrial herbs with creeping rhizome, stipes scattered, grooved above, fronds simple pinnate. Common, along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. Asplenium zenkeranum Kunze A. persicifolium var. latifolium Hook. Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome thick, stipes grooved above, fronds simple pinnate. Rare, along shaded stream banks and interior forests in Mannavan Shola. ATHYRIACEAE Athyrium snlennpteris (Kunze) T. Moore Allantodia solenopteris Kunze; Asplenium ceylanense Klotsch: A. solenopteris (Kunze) Mett. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, stipes grooved above, fronds bipinnate or subtripinnate. Occasional, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. 24

31 Deparia petersenii (Kunze) M. Kato Lunathyrium japonicum (Thunb.) Kurata; Asplenium japonicum Thunb.; Diplazium japonicum (Thunb.) Bedd. Terrestrial herbs found along stream banks and roadsides. Rhizome long creeping, stipes grooved above, fronds simple pinnate. Fairly common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Hemionitis esculenta Retz.; Asplenium esculentum (Retz.) Presl; Anisogonium esculentum (Retz.) C. Presl Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, stipes tufted, fronds bipinnate. Very common, along road sides and stream sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Dryoathyrium boryanum (Willd.) Ching Aspidium boryanum Willd.; A. divisum Wall.; Lastrea boryana (Willd.) T. Moore Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome suberect, stipes grooved above, fronds tripinnatifid. Rare, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. BLECHNACEAE Blechnum orientale L. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome massive, fronds simple pinnate Rare, in grassland ecotones in Eravikulam. CYATHEACEAE Cyathea crinita (Hook.) Copel Alsophila crinita Hook. Tree ferns. Trunk 5-8 m high, bearing leaf bases, young and mature fronds yellow, stipes spiny and swollen at base, lamina bipinnate. Rare, along road sides and stream sides in Mannavan Shola. Cyathea nilginensis Holttum var. nilginensis Alsophila latebrosa Hook. var. schmidiana Kunze; A. latebrosa Hook. Tree ferns. Trunk about 2 m high. Stipes brown hairy, swollen at base; lamina bipinnate. Common, along stream sides and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Cyathea nilginensis Holttum var. lobatus Manickam & Irudayaraj Tree ferns. A variety of the former with bipinnatifid lamina. Rare, along stream sides in Mannavan Shola. DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Microlepia speluncae (L.) Moore Polypodium speluncae L.; Microlepia speluncae var. hirta Bedd. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome long creeping. Stipes scattered, grooved above, fronds tripinnatifid or quadripinnate. Common, along roadsides in Mannavan Shola. 25

32 Odontosoria chinensis (L.) J. Sm. Sphenomeris chinensis (L.) Maxon; Trichomanes chinense L.; Adiantum chinense (L.) Burm. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome short creeping, stipes scattered, fronds tripinnatifid or quadripinnate. Very common, along road cuttings in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Preris aquilina L. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome long creeping, stipes scattered, fronds tripinnatifid at base, becoming bipinnatifid towards apex. Very common, gregarious along grassy slopes, ecotones and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. DRYOPTERIDACEAE Arachniodes aristata (Forst. f.) Tindale Polypodium aristatum Forst. f.; Polystichum aristatum Presl; Lastrea aristata (Forst. f.) T. Moore Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome long creeping, stipes scattered, fronds tripinnate at base, bipinnatifid or bipinnate above. Rare, along stream banks or roadsides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Arachniodes tripinnata (Goldm.) Sledge Polystichum tripinnatum Goldm.; Lastrea coniifolia Bedd.; Polystichum corvifolium C. Chr, Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, stipes tufted, fronds tripinnatifid. Common, in interior forests and along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Dryopteris hirtipes (Blume) Kuntze Aspidium hirtipes Blume; A. atratum Wall.; Lastrea hirtipes (Blume) T. Moore Terrestrial herbs with erect rhizome. Stipes tufted; lamina simple pinnate. Common, along ecotones and road sides in Mannavan Shola. Dryopteris juxtaposita Christ Lastrea odontoloma T. Moore; Nephridiumfilix-mas var. normalis C. B. Clarke; Aspidiumfilix-mas var. normalis (C. B. Clarke) Christ Terrestrial herbs with suberect rhizome. Stipes tufted, fronds bipinnate. Rare, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Dryopteris sparsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Kuntze Nephrodium sparsum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don; Aspidium sparsum (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Sprengel; Lastrea sparsa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) T. Moore Terrestrial herbs, with erect rhizome. Fronds bipinnatifid. Fairly common, along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. 26

33 Polystichum harpophyllum (Zenker ex Kunze) Sledge Polypodium harpophyllum Zenker ex Kunze Terrestrial herbs with erect or suberect rhizome. Stipes tufted, grooved above, fronds simple pinnate. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. GLEICHENIACEAE Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underwood var. sebastiana Panigrahi & Dixit Terrestrial herbs with scattered stipe. Primary branches of the frond forked 3 or 4 times. Rare, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. GRAMMITIDACEAE Ctenopteris subfalcata (Blume) Kunze Polypodium subfalcatum Blume; P. subminutum Alderw. van Rosenb.; Ctenopteris subminuta (Alderw. van Rosenb.) Holttum Epiphytic herbs with erect rhizome. Stipes tufted, fronds pinnatifid. Rare, in interior forests mostly at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Grammitis attenuata Kunze Polypodium parasiticum Mett.; Grammitis beddomeana Copel. Epiphytic herbs with short creeping rhizome. Stipes crowded, fronds simple. Rare, along shola margins and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. HEMIONITIDACEAE Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.) Moore Asplenium arifolium Burm.; Hemionitis cordifolia Roxb. ex Bedd. Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome creeping when mature, stipes compact, fronds simple cordate; dimorphic; fertile ones deltoid, trilobed. Occasional, along stream banks and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Trichomanes proliferum Blume HYMENOPHYLLACEAE Gonocormous prolifer (Blume) Prantl.; Trichomanes subpinnatifidum v. d. B.; Gonocormous diffusus (Blume) v. d. B. Epiphytic herbs with long creeping rhizome. Stipes scattered, fronds proliferate, pinnately or flabellately divided. Fairly common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Trichomanes plicatum (v.d.b.) Bedd. Didymoglossum plicatum v. d. B. Crepidomanes plicatum (v. d. B.) Ching; Didymoglossum latealatum v. d. B.; Epiphytic herbs with long creeping rhizome. Stipes flattened, winged, fronds tripinnatifid with numerous false veins. Very common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 27

34 Trichomanes schmidiannm Zenker ex Taschn. Vandenboschia schmidiana (Zenker) Copel.; Crepidomanes schmidianum (Zenker ex Taschn.) Iwatsuki; Trichomanes latifrons v.d. B. Epiphytic herbs with long creeping rhizome. Stipes flattened, narrowly winged, fronds bipinnatifid, false veins absent. Rare, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. LINDSAEACEAE Lindsaea odorata Roxb. ex Griffith Adianrum cultratum Willd.; Lindsaea cultrata (Willd.) Sw.; L. lobbiana Hook. Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Stipes scattered, grooved above, fronds simple pinnate. Common, along fully shaded stream banks in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. LOMARIOPSIDACEAE Elaphoglossum stelligerum (Wall. ex Baker) T. Moore ex Alston & Bonner Acrostichum stelligerum Wall. ex Baker; A. neriifolium Wall. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs with short creeping rhizome. Stipes crowded. fronds simple. Very rare, along shola margins and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. LYCOPODIACEAE Huperzia ceylanica (Spring) Trev. Lycopodium ceylanicum Spring Small epiphytic herbs with erect stem. Sporangia not borne on distinct cones but on unreduced leaves indistinct from vegetative leaves. Very rare, along shola margins in Eravikulam. Huperzia hamiltonii (Spring) Trev. Lycopodium hamilronii Spring; Phlegmariurus hamiltonii (Spring) Sen & Sen; Lycopodium obrnsijolium Buch.-Ham. Small epiphytic herbs with pendulous isodichotomously branched tufted stem, leaves numerous spirally arranged and spreading, sporangia not borne on cones. Rare, in shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Huperzia hilliana (Nessel) Holub Urostachys hillianus Nessel Small, epiphytic and pendent herbs with tufted stem. Leaves numerous, spirally arranged, but adnate, ascending. Sporangia not borne on cones. Occasional, in shola margins and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Huperzia phyllantha (Hook. &Arn.) Holub. Lycopodium phyllanthum Hook. & Arn.; Phlegmariurus phyllanthum (Hook. & Arn.) Dixit Epiphytic herbs with pendulous stem. Leaves spreading, in six vertical rows, sporangia borne on distinct terminal branched cones. Rare, along shola margins at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. 28

35 Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic. Ser. Lycopodium cernum L.; L. capillaceum Willd.; Palhinhaea cemua (L.) Franco & Vasc. Terrestrial branching herbs. Leaves sparse on main stem, dense on rest, cones terminal on the ultimate branches. Occasional, along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Lycopodium japonicum Thunb. L. clavatum sensu Clarke Terrestrial herbs with prostrate stem branching aniso-dichotomously, Leaves spirally arranged, ascending, overlapping, cones borne on ultimate branches. Very rare, found as felts along roadsides in Mannavan Shola. Lycopodium wightianum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. Diphasiastrum wightianum (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.) Holub Terrestrial herbs with prostrate stem. Leaves dense on ultimate branchlets, sparse on other parts, cones borne on ultimate branches, pedunculate. Common, along roadsides as felts in higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. OLEANDRACEAE Nephrolepis auriculata (L.) Trimen Polypodium auriculatum L.; Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Presl; Polypodium cordifolium L. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs with tuberous roots. Rhizome erect, stipes tufted, fronds simple pinnate, pinna sessile. Very common, in interior forests and along stream banks in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. OPHIOGLOSSACEAE Botrychium daucifolium Wall. Botrychium subscarnosum (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.) Lyon; B. subscarnosum Wall. ex Bedd. Terrestrial herbs with erect rhizome and fleshy roots. Sterile stalk 3 branched, bearing bipinnatifid fronds, spike arising below the sterile blade. Rare, in shaded moist forest floors in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ex Hook. & Grev. Botrypus lanuginosum (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.) Ching; Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. var. lanuginosum Bedd.; B. yunnanense Ching Terrestrial herbs with erect rhizome, 3 primary sterile branches with bipinnatifid or tripinnatifid branching, spike arising from the rachis of sterile blade. Very rare, in interior forests or grassland ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. POLYPODIACEAE Crypsinus montanus Sledge Pleopeltis oxyloba Bedd.; P. hastata Bedd.; Phymatodes oxyloba (Wall. ex Kunze) Presl Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs with long creeping rhizome, scattered stipe, grooved above, fronds pinnatifid. Occasional, mostly found along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 29

36 Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir & Trikha Pleopeltis amaurolepida Sledge; Polypodium gladiatum Wall. Lithophytic or epiphytic herbs. Rhizome short, creeping, stipes crowded, fronds simple, sori superficial. Very rare, along shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Lepisorus nudus (Hook.) Ching Pleopeltis nuda Hook; P. linearis Bedd.; P. wightiana Bedd. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome long creeping, stipes scattered, grooved above, fronds simple, son superficial. Very common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Leptochilns decurrens Blume forma lanceolatus L. lanceolatus Fee Terrestrial, epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Stipes scattered, grooved above. Sterile lamina simple, elliptic-lanceolate. Common, along shaded stream banks in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Loxogramme chinensis Ching L. parallela Copel.; L. lanceolata Presl Small epiphytic herbs. Rhizome elongated, creeping, stipes scattered, fronds simple, linear-lanceolate. Very rare, along shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Loxogramme cuspidata (Zenker) Price Crammitis cuspidata Zenker; Loxogramme involuta (D. Don) C. Presl; Grammitis involuta D. Don Epiphtytic or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome long creeping, fronds scattered. Rare, along road sides and shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Bory ex Willd.) Kaulf Polypodium macrocarpum Bory ex Willd.; P. lanceolatum L.; P. marginata Bory ex Willd. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome long, creeping, densely covered by scales, stipes scattered, fronds simple, monomorphic. Very rare, along road sides and ecotones at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Pyrrosia porosa Hovenkamp Polypodium porosum Wall.; Niphobolus porosus Presl; Cyclophorus porosus Presl Lithophytic or epiphytic herbs, Rhizome short, creeping, fronds scattered, simple, monomorphic. Fairly common, along ecotones road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 30

37 PSILOTACEAE Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. Lycopodium nudum L.; Psilotum triquetrum Sw. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome short creeping, without roots, stems branch dichotomously; leaves absent. Very rare. in forest ecotones in Mannavan Shola. PTERIDACEAE Pteris argyraea T. Moore P. quadriaurita Retz. var. argentea Bedd. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, stipes tufted, fronds bipinnate with prominent silvery white band along the costa above. Rare, along road sides and interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Pteris confusa T.G. Walker Terrestrial herbs with erect rhizome. Fronds bipinnate, pinna lobed almost to the costa Rare, along roadsides in Mannavan Shola. Pteris cretica L. P. stenophylla Hook. & Grev.; Pycnodoria cretica (L.) Small Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, stipes tufted, fronds bipinnate. Rare, in interior forests along stream banks at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Pteris linearis Poir. P. normalis D. Don Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, fronds bipinnate. Very rare, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Pteris quadriaurita Retz. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome suberect or erect, fronds bipinnatifid. Very common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. SELAGINELLACEAE Selaginella brachystachya (Hook. & Grev.) Spring Lycopodium brachystachyum Hook. & Grev.; Selaginella brachystachya var. denticulata Spring; S. stolonifera non Spring, sensu Ferguson Terrestrial, prostrate herbs. Leaves dimorphic, arranged in 4 rows, sporophylls of spike dimorphic. Very common, as dense undergrowth in shaded forest floors in Mannavan Shola. Selaginella delicatula (Desv. ex Poir.) Alston Lycopodium delicatulum Desv. ex Poir.; L. flaccidum Bory; L. crassicaule Hook. & Grev. Small terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Stem erect or suberect, rooting at base, leaves scattered in 4 rows, sporophylls of spike monomorphic. Common, along roadsides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam 31

38 Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring Lycopodium involvens Sw.; Selaginella caulescens (Wall.) Spring; Lycopodium caulescens Wall. Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Stem erect, rooting at base, leaves uniform at the base, sporophylls of cones uniform. Common, along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. SINOPTERIDACEAE Cheilanthes farinosa (Forsk.) Kaulf. Pteris farinosa Forsk.; Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forsk.) Fee; Cheilanthes pulveracea Pr. Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome erect, fronds with silvery crest, indusia with incised margins. Rare, along shola ecotones and road sides in Eravikulam. Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. & Fischer) Kuhn Pteris concolor Langsd. & Fischer; Pellaea geranifolia (Reddi) Fee Terrestrial or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome erect or suberect, stipes tufted, fronds palmately lobed, bipinnatifid. Rare, along shola margins or roadsides in Mannavan Shola. Pellaea falcata Bedd. P. seticaulis (Hook.) Ghosh; Pteris seticaulis Hook.; Platyloma fulcatum var. setosum Bedd. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome long, creeping, stipes scattered, lamina simple pinnate, pinnules hairy. Occasional, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. THELYPTERIDACEAE Pseudocyclosorus ochthodes (Kunze) Holttum var. annamalayensis Manickam & Irudayaraj Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, fronds simple pinnate, pubescent all over. Rare, along roadsides in Mannavan Shola. Pseudocyclosorus ochthodes (Kunze) Holttum var. palniensis Manickam & Irudayaraj Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect or suberect, fronds simple pinnate, glabrous. Rare, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Pseudocyclosorus tylodes (Kunze) Ching Aspidium tylodes Kunze; Lastrea tylodes (Kunze) Moore; L. ochthodes var. tylodes Bedd. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome erect, stipes tufted purple in colour and grooved above, fronds pinnate, glabrous. Occasional, along roadsides in Mannavan Shola. Pseudophegopteris pyrrhorhachis (Kunze) Ching Polypodium pyrrhorhachis Kunze; P. distans D. Don; Lastrea microstegia Bedd. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome short, creeping or suberect, rachis and stipe reddish-brown, fronds bipinnate, with a few pairs of basal pinna slightly reduced. Rare, along roadsides in Mannavan Shola. 32

39 Stenogramma pozoi (Lagasca) K. Iwats Hemionitis pozoi Lagasca; Polypodium tottum Willd.; Leptogramma totta J. Sm. Terrestrial herbs. Rhizome short creeping, stipes grooved above, fronds simple pinnate. Occasional, in Mannavan Shola along stream banks. Antrophyum plantagineum (Cav.) Kaulf. VITTARIACEAE Hemionitis plantaginea Cav.; Antrophyum reticulatum sensu Bedd. Epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Rhizome short, creeping, fronds closely arranged, simple with anastamosing veins. Rare, found in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Vittaria elongata Sw. Pteris graminifolia Roxb. ex Griff. Epiphytic herbs. Rhizome short, creeping. Fronds simple linear-oblong lanceolate with marginal sori. Very common, in interior forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola ANGIOSPERMS DICOTYLEDONS ACANTHACEAE Andrographis neesiana Wight var. neesiana Clarke Erect herbs. Fairly common, along stream banks, ecotones and also along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Asystasia crispata Benth. Branching herbaceous undershrubs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Barleria involucrata Nees var. elata (Dalz.) Clarke B. elata Dalz. Shrubs, upto 2.5 m tall. Fairly common, along stream banks at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Rostellularia japonica (Thunb.) Ellis Justicia japonica Thunb. Pubescent branching herbs. Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola, 33

40 Rostellularia latispica (Clarke) Bremek. Justicia procumbens L. var. latispica Clarke; Rostellularia procumbens sensu Wight; Justicia latispica (Clarke) Gamble Diffuse branching subshrubs with zig-zag branches. Common, along road sides and shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Rostellularia simplex (D. Don) Wight Justicia simplex D. Don; Justicia notha Clarke Pubescent branching herbs. Common, along road sides and grassland ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Rungia laeta Clarke Shrubs with stout, terete, zig-zag branchlets. Rare, in open disturbed areas and along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Strobilanthes homotropa Nees Mackenziea homotropa (Nees) Bremek.; S. sexeenis Bedd. Large shrubs with white flowers Abundant. in the shola interiors in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Strobilanthes kunthianus (Nees) T. And. ex Benth. Phlebophyllum kunthianum Nees Gregarious bushy shrubs. Very common, on grassy downs and along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Strobilanthes luridus Wight Didyplosandra lurida (Wight) Bremek. Large straggling shrubs. Very common, in the interior sholas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Strobilanthes neilgherrensis Bedd. Nilgirianthus neilgherrensis (Bedd.) Bremek. Large shrubs with subtetragonal branches. Common, along the road sides, ecotones and in the grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Thunbergia tomentosa Wall. Slender climber. Fairly common, along shola margins and along road sides in Mannavan Shola AMARANTHACEAE Allmania nodiflora (L.) R. Br. ex Wight Celosia nodiflora L.; Allmania albida (Willd.) R. Br. ex Hook. f.; Celosia albida Willd. Scandent, many branched herbs with stout root stock. Occasional, in open areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 34

41 Achyranthes bidentata Blume Ascending herbs with woody base. Occasional, in open areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. APIACEAE Bupleurum virgatum Wight & Arn. B. mucronatum var. virgatum (Wight & Am.) Clarke Tall erect herbs. Common, in the ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Bupleurum wightii Mukh. A. mucronatum Wight & Arn. Bushy herbs with knotted stems and many leaves. Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Heracleum sprengelianum Wight & Arn. Pastinaca sprengeliana (Wight & Arn.) Wight Large erect herbs. Rare, in grasslands and ecotones at higher altitudes in Eravikulam Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. H. polycephala Wight & Am. Creeping herbs with succulent stem. Common, in moist places, along road sides and as undergrowth in degraded forest interiors in Mannavan Shola. Pimpinella candolleana Wight & Am. Erect pubescent, perennial herbs with white flowers. Fairly common, in grasslands ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Pimpinella pulneyensis Gamble Tall herbs with white flowers. Rare, in the grassland ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham. S. europaea auct. non L. Erect perennial herbs. Very common, along road sides and in open areas in Mannavan Shola. Vanasushava pedata (Wight) Mukh. & Constance Heracleum pedatum Wight Trailing herbs with white flowers. Rare, in the grassland ecotones and also along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 35

42 APOCYNACEAE Alstonia venenata R. Br. Large shrubs to small trees with whorled leaves and white flowers. Fairly common, in disturbed areas and along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Rauvolfia densiflora (Wall) Benth. ex Hook. f. Tabernaemontana densiflora Wall. Much branched large shrubs. Fairly common, at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex denticulata Wall. ex Wight Small trees. Fairly common, in shola margins at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Ilex walkeri Wight & Gard. ex Thw. I. thwaitesii Loes. ex Gamble Small densely branched trees. Fairly common, at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Ilex wightiana Wall. ex Wight Large handsome trees. Fairly common, in Mannavan Shola. ARALIACEAE Polyscias acuminata (Wight) Seem. Hedera acuminata Wight Glabrous trees with long pinnate leaves. Occasional, along the shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Schefflera racemosa (Wight) Harms Hedera racemosa Wight; Heptapleurum racemosum (Wight) Bedd. Small to medium sized trees. Fairly common, along the road sides and in the shola-grassland ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. ASCLEPIADACEAE Tylophora mollissima Wight & Arn. Slender pubescent climbers. Very rare, in the interior shola forests in Mannavan Shola. Wattakaka volubilis (L. f.) Stapf. Asclepias volubilis L. f.; Marsdenia volubilis (L. f.) Cooke; Dregea volubilis (L. f.) Benth. ex Hook. f. Large climbing shrubs. Fairly common, at lower altitudes and along road sides in Mannavan Shola. 36

43 ASTERACEAE Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Annual pubescent herbs. Occasional, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze var. lavenia Verbesina lavenia L.; Adenostemma viscosum Forst. Erect herbs with sticky achenes. Common, along damp stream sides and in shaded forest interiors in Mannavan Shola Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.).King & Robinson Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.; E. glandulosum Kunth Perennial, branched undershrubs. Abundant, along the road sides and other open areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Anaphalis aristata DC. Wooly herbs with stout stem. Common, in the ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, Anaphalis bournei Fyson Much branched low herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Anaphalis lawii (Hook. f.) Gamble A. oblonga DC. var. lawii Hook. f. Tall white herbs with white cottony leaves. Fairly common, along higher altitude in shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Anaphalis marcescens (Wight) Clarke Gnaphulium marcescens Wight Graceful small herbs. Occasional, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Anaphalis meeboldii W. W. Sm. Much tufted woody herbs. Rare, along ecotones at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Anaphalis subdecurrens (DC.) Gamble Gnaphalium subdecurrens DC.; Anaphalis oblonga DC. Stout herbs, stem covered with soft cottony wool. Fairly common, in the ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 37

44 Anaphalis travancorica W. W. Sm. Large herbs with woody base. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. A. vulgaris L. var. nilgirica Clarke: A. indica sensu Wight; A. vulgaris auct. non L. Tall profusely branched aromatic shrubs reaching 1-2 m tall. Common, found chiefly along shola margins and adjoining inhabited areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Blume) Sherff B. sundaica var. minor Blume Erect herbs. Common along road sides and other open areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Blumea sp. Erect herbs Rare, along grasslands ecotones in higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola Cirsium wallichii DC. var. wightii (Hook. f.) Vivek. Cnicus wallichii DC. var. wightii Hook. f.; C. wallichii sensu Fyson Prickly shrubs with hollow pubescent stem. Common, in open places and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Conyza stricta Willd. Small herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore Gynura crepidioides Benth.; Erechtites valerianifolia sensu Fischer Erect annual herbs. Occasional, along road sides and in other exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. Dichrocephala chrysanthemifolia (Blume) DC. Cotula chrysanthemifolia Blume Annual herbs. Common. in disturbed areas and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Dichrocephala integrifolia (L. f.) Kuntze Hippia integrifolia L. f.; Grangea latifolia Lam.; Dichrocephala latifolia (Lam.) DC. Herbs, rooting at nodes. Common, along road sides and disturbed areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam 38

45 Emilia scabra DC. E. sonchifolia (L.) DC. var. scabra (DC.) Hook. f. Small crispately pubescent herbs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Emilia javanica (Burm. f.) C. Robinson Hieracium javanicum Burm. f.; Emilia flammea Gass. Stout herbs. Rare, found along ecotones and disturbed areas at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola Erigeron karvinskianus DC. E. mucronatus DC. Perennial herbs, stems woody at base. Very common, along road sides and other open areas in Mannavan Shola. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Annual herbs with viscous glandular fruits. Fairly common, in disturbed areas-in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Gnaphalium sp. Erect herbs. Fairly common, in the grasslands and ecotones at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Gynura travancorica W. W. Sm. Stout herbs. Occasional, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Helichrysum buddleioides DC. H. Hookianum Wight & Arn.; H. buddleioides DC. var. Hookianum (Wight & Arn.) Hook. f. Undershrubs. Occasional, in grasslands and shola margins and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Helichrysum perlanigerum Gamble Undershrubs. Very rare and endangered species, found in ecotones in higher altitudes at Eravikulam Lactuca hastata DC. Mulgedium neilgheryense Wight Erect herbs. Rare, along road sides and in ecotones in Mannavan Shola. 39

46 Moonia heterophylla Am. Chrysogonum heterophyllum (Am.) Benth. ex Clarke; Moonia arnottiana Wight: Chrysogonum arnottianum (Wight) Benth. ex Clarke Perennial undershrubs. Occasional, along the shola margins at higher altitudes in Eravikulam. Myriactis wightii DC. Stiff annual herbs. Fairly common, along road sides and in other open areas in Mannavan Shola Notonia grandiflora DC. Fleshy shrubs with pale yellow flowers. Very rare, found in disturbed regions at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Notonia walkeri (Wight) Clarke Gynura walkeri Wight Undershrubs, stem and leaves soft and slightly fleshy. Rare, in moist shady areas in Mannavan Shola. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Poisonous herbaceous weed Common, along road sides at lowers altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Phyllocephalum courtallense (Wight) Narayana Decaneurum courtallense Wight: Centratherum courtallense (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f. Annual herbs. Rare, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Senecio corymbosus Wall. ex DC. var. corymbosus Cissampelopsis corymbosa (Wall. ex. DC) Jeffery & Chen. Climbing shrubs, leaves white wooly beneath. Fairly common, along road sides and shola margins in Mannavan Shola Senecio corymbosus Wall. ex DC. var. walkeri (Am.) Grierson Senecio walkeri Am.; S. araneosus DC. Scandent shrubs. Occasional, along road sides and other open places in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Senecio scandens Bunch.-Ham. ex D. Don Climbing shrubs with striate stem. Occasional, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam 40

47 Sonchus oleraceus L. S. ciliatus Lam. Milky annual herbs. Rare, found in open areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Spilanthes calva DC. S. acmella auct. non (L.) Murr. Erect pubescent annual herbs. Common, along road sides and in other open areas at lower elevations in Mannavan Shola. Vernonia bourneana W. W. Sm. Shrub or undershrubs. Fairly common, in grasslands at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Vernonia conyzoides DC. V. cinerea sensu Hook. f. Stout erect herbs. Very common, in the ecotones, cleared regions and along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Vernonia heynei Bedd. ex Gamble Large erect undershrubs. Rare, in the higher altitude grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Vernonia monosis Clarke V. arborea var. wightiana Hook. f.; Monosis wightiana Wight Small trees with purple flowers. Occasional, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Vernonia peninsularis (Clarke) Clarke ex Hook. f. V. bracteata Wall. var. peninsularis Clarke; Decaneurum silhetense Wight Erect undershrubs with flexuous branches. Rare, in open regions at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Vernonia saligna DC. var. nilghirensis Hook.f. V. saligna sensu Fyson Erect undershrubs. Rare, along grassland ecotones at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Youngia japonica (L.) DC. Prenanthes japonica L.; Youngia napifolia (DC.) DC.; Crepis japonica (L.) Benth, Very slender annual herbs. Fairly common along road sides and in other open areas in Mannavan Shola. 41

48 BALANOPHORACEAE Balanophora dioica R. Br. Parasitic herbs with tuberous root stock, smaller than the other species. Rare, found in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Balanophora fungosa J. R. & G. Forst. subsp. indica (Arn.) Hansen var. indica Longdoffia indica Arn.; Bulunophora indica (Arn.) Wall. ex Griff. Thick parasitic herbs with a tuberous root stock. Occasional, in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola. Balanophora fungosa J. R. & G. Forst subsp. indica (Arn.) Hansen var. minor (Eichl.) Hansen B. indica (Am.) Wall. ex Griff. var. minor Eichl.; Balanophora indica (Arn.) Wall. ex Griff. Parasitic herbs with tuberous root stock. Occasional, in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola. Balanophora sp. Very large yellow coloured parasitic herbs having massive tuberous root stocks with peduncles. Very rare, along road sides and in other exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens balsamina L. Annual herbs. Common, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Impatiens cordata Wight Herbs, about 30 cm tall. Common, mostly found along road sides or along stream banks in Mannavan Shola Impatiens cuspidata Wight Glaucous shrubs. Fairly common, in moist shady regions or along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Impatiens elegans Bedd. Annual herbs upto 30 cm tall. Rare, in open areas in Mannavan Shola. Impatiens goughii Wight I. anamalayensis Bedd. Small slender annual herbs. Fairly common, in open but wet places or along stream sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 42

49 Impatiens hensloviana Am. Undershrubs with prominent scars of leaves on the stem. Common, in open areas and ecotones at higher altitudes, in Mannavan Shola Impatiens herbicola Hook. f. Annual herbs. Rare, in moist regions in Mannavan Shola Impatiens jerdoniae Wight I. parusitica Bedd. Succulent epiphytes with swollen internodes. Rare, on trees and moist rocks in Eravikulam Impatiens phoenicea Bedd. Erect suffruticose herbs. Rare, along the road sides and in interior forests in Mannavan Shola Impatiens tangachee Bedd. Herbs with sub-procumbent stem. Common, on rocks along the streams and other water courses in Mannavan Shola. Impatiens uncinata Wight Small annual herbs. Rare, in moist dense shady areas in Mannavan Shola. Impatiens wightiana Bedd. Erect unbranched suffruticose herbs. Rare. in shaded interior forests in Mannavan Shola Impatiens sp. Erect annual herbs with reddish brown flowers. Rare, in grasslands at higher altitudes in Eravikulam. BEGONIACEAE Begonia malabarica Lam. B. fallax A. DC.; Diploclinium lindleyanum Wight Small shrubs. Occasional, in disturbed forest areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola BERBERIDACEAE Berberis tinctoria Lesch. Erect thorny shrubs with pale brown shining twigs. Very rare, in cleared forest areas and shola margins at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola 43

50 Mahonia leschenaultii (Wall. ex Wight & Am.) Takeda Berberis leschenaultii Wall. ex Wight & Am.; B. nepalensis Spreng. var. leschenaultii (Wall. ex Wight &Am.) Hook. f. Shrubs to small trees with corky bark. Fairly common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam BORAGINACEAE Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex Homem.) Thunb. ex Lehm. Arichusa zeylanica Vahl ex Hornem; Cynoglossum furcatum Wall. ex Roxb.; C. denticulatum A. DC. var. zeylanicum (Vahl ex Hornem.) Clarke Erect herbs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. BRASSICACEAE Cardamine africana L. C. borbonica Pers. Small perennial herbs. Common, along road sides and disturbed areas in Mannavan Shola. Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich. C. subumbellata Hook. ex Hook. f. Slender perennial herbs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Lepidium didymum L.; Senebiera didyma (L.) Pers. Parasitic branching herbs. Occasional, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. BUXACEAE Sarcococca coriacea (Hook.) Sweet Pachysandra coriacea Hook.; Sarcococca trinervia Wight Scandent shrubs. Fairly common, in interior forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola CAMPANULACEAE Wahlenbergia erecta (Roth ex Schultes) Tuyn Dentella erecta Roth ex Schultes; Cephalostigma schimperi Hochst. ex A. Rich. Annual erect herbs. Occasional, along road sides and grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) A. DC. Campanula marginata Thunb.; Wahlenbergia agrostis A. DC.; W. gracilis DC. Erect perennial herbs. Occasional, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 44

51 CAPRIFOLIACEAE Viburnum coriaceum Blume V. hebanthum Wight & Arn. Small trees. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Viburnum erubescens Wall. ex DC. V. wightianum Wight & Arn. Small trees. Occasional, along stream banks and road sides in Mannavan shola Viburnum punctatum Buch. Ham. ex D. Don V. acuminatum Wall ex. DC. Small trees. Common, in open areas and along road sides mostly at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. CARYOPHYLLACEAE Cerastium indicum Wight & Arn. Scandent pubescent herbs. Common, at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Spergula arvensis L. Diffusely branched annual herbs with leaves clustered in whorls. Common, mostly in open areas and along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. CELASTRACEAE Euonymus crenulatus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Small evergreen trees. Rare, along the shola margins in Eravikulam Microtropis ramiflora Wight Medium sized trees. Occasional, along the shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam CLUSIACEAE Garcinia cowa Roxb. ex DC. Small to medium sized trees with beaked fruit. Common, along the shola margins and stream hanks at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 45

52 CONVOLVULACEAE Argyreia hirsuta Wight var. coacta Clarke Large shaggy climbers, branchlets sparsely hairy. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Wiry stemmed, yellow coloured parasite. Common, in the ecotones at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola CORNACEAE Mastixia arborea (Wight) Bedd. subsp. arborea Bursinupetalum arboreum Wight Large trees. Common, at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. CUCURBITACEAE Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey Bryonia palmata L.; B. laciniosa L.; Bryonopsis laciniosa sensu Naud Slender climbing annuals, perennating from thick root stocks. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Bryonia amplexicaulis Lam.; Solena heterophylla Lour.; Zehneria umbellata Thw.; Melothria heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn. Climbing herbs with small yellowish white flowers. Occasional, found along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Trichosanthes lobata Roxb. T. perrottetiana Cogn.; T. villosula Cogn.; T. villosula Cogn. var. nilgirensis Kundu Climbing herbs. Occasional, found along road sides among hedges in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Zehneria maysorensis (Wight &Arn.) Am. Bryonia maysorensis Wight & Am.; Melothria mucronata sensu Chakravarthy; M. perpusilla var. subtruncata Cogn.; M. perpusilla sensu Gamble Slender climbers. Common, in open areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. DAPHNIPHYLLACEAE Daphniphyllum neilgherrense (Wight) K. Rosenth. Daphniphyllum glaucescens Muell. - Arg. Medium sized trees. Common, in the ecotones and open areas, rarely in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 46

53 Drosera peltata Sm. Herbs with tuberous root stock. DROSERACEAE Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Elaeagnus kologa Schlecht. E. latifolia L. ELAEAGNACEAE Large scandent or climbing shrubs, some times thorny, leaves with silvery or stellate scales on under surface. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Elaeocarpus munronii (Wight) Mast. ELAEOCARPACEAE Monocera munronii Wight Large trees, branchlets with prominent leaf scars. Common, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Elaeocarpus recurvatus Corner E. ferrugineus (Wight) Bedd.; Monocera ferruginea Wight Trees, young branches rusty tomentose; leaves recurved Common along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Elaeocarpus serratus L. E. cuneatus Wight Small trees with white flowers Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. Large trees. Common, at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. G. leschenaultii DC. Shrubs with aromatic smell. ERICACEAE Abundant, in the ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Rhododendron arboreum J. E. Sm. ssp. nilagiricum (Zenk.) Tagg. R. nilagiricum Zenk. Trees with brown fissured corky bark. Common, in the ecotones and shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 41

54 EUPHORBIACEAE Antidesma menasu (Tul.) Miq. A. pubescens Roxb. var. menasu Tul. Small branching trees. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, Aporusa fusiformis Thw. Small trees with very coriaceous leaves. Occasional. in interior forests in Mannavan Shola, Bischofia javanica Blume Large trees. Common, in the interior as well as exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. Euphorbia rothiana Spreng. E. laeta Heyne ex Roth Erect glaucous herbs Common, along road sides in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Excoecaria crenulata Wight Small trees. Rare, in interior forests at medium altitudes in Mannavan shola. Glochidion neilgherrense Wight Moderate sized trees with zig-zag branches. Common, along shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Mallotus tetracoccus (Roxb.) Kurz Rottlera tetracocca Roxb.; Mallotus albus var. occidentalis Hook. f. Small trees. Common, in open areas and along road sides at low altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Phyllanthus gardnerianus (Wight) Baill. Macraea gardneriana Wight; Phyllanthus simplex Retz. var. gardneriana (Wight) Muell.- Arg. Erect herbs with elongated branches. Common in ecotones and other exposed regions in Mannavan shola. Phyllanthus macraei Muell: Arg. Macraea rheedii Wt. Shrubs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. 48

55 Ricinus communis L. Large shrubs. Occasional, along road sides in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola FABACEAE Abarema subcoriacea (Thw.) Kosterm. Pithecellobiurn subcoriaceum Thw. ; P. anamalayanum Bedd. Small trees. Common, in lower and medium altitude forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Acacia dealbata Link Evergreen trees with silvery foliage and densely tomentose branchlets Earlier raised in plantations, now getting established in grasslands Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. Large trees. Earlier raised in plantations, now getting established in grasslands Atylosia rugosa Wight & Am. Trailing herbs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Cassia leschenaultii DC. C. mimosoides Lam. var. wallichianum (DC.) Baker; C. wallichiana DC. Bushy herbs. Fairly common, along road sides and in open areas in Mannavan Shola. Canavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wight & Am. Dolichos virosus Roxb.; Canavalia ensiformis DC. var. virosa (Roxb.) Baker Larger climbers with pink flowers. Occasional, in disturbed forest ecotones at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Crotalaria calycina Schrank. Herbs, with erect branches from the base. Rare, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Crotalaria fysonii Dunn Trailing perennial subshruhs. Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Crotalaria leschenaultii DC. Erect herbaceous undershrubs. Common, along shola margins, road sides and other exposed areas in Mannavan Shola 49

56 Crotalaria ovalifolia Wall. ex Fyson C. rubiginosa sensu Baker Spreading shrubs, densely clothed with grey pubescens; flowers yellow. Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Crotalaria pallida Dryand. C. striata DC.; C. striata DC. var. acutifolia Trimen Glabrescent undershrubs. Occasional, along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Crotalaria scabrella Wight & Arn. C. rubiginosa Willd. var. scabrella (Wight & Arn.) Baker Erect undershrubs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola Crotalaria semperflorens Vent. C. wallichiana Wight & Arn. Shrubs with rusty villous, terete branches ;Common, along shola margins and along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Crotalaria wightiana Graham ex Wight & Arn. C. rubiginosa Willd. var. wightiana (Graham ex Wight & Arn.) Baker Handsome shrubs. Common, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Derris canarensis (Dalz.) Baker Pongamia canarensis Dalz. Climbing shrubs with white flowers Common, along shola margins at higher altitudes in Mannavan shola and Eravikulam Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. Hedysarum heterophyllum Willd.; Desmodium trifrorum (L.) DC. var. majus Wight & Arn. Diffusely branched herbs. Common in exposed places and in ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC. Hedysarum microphyllum Thunb. ; Desmodium parvifolium DC. Much branched prostrate herbs. Fairly common, in the ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. Hedysarum repandum Vahl; Desmodium scalpe DC.; D. strangulatum Wight & Am Herbaceous undershrubs. Common, in shady and semi-shady places in Mannavan Shola. 50

57 Desmodium uncinatum (Jacq.) DC. Hedysarum uncinatum Jacq. Branched herbs with hooked hairs. Fairly common, along road sides in lower altitudes in Mannavan shola. Dumasia villosa DC. Slender twining herbs. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Flemingia bracteata (Roxb.) Wight Hedysarum bracteatum Roxb.; Flemingia strobilifera R. Br. ex Ait. var. bracteata (Roxb.) Baker Erect branching shrubs. Occasional, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Flemingia grahamiana Wight & Arn. Erect shrubs with red sticky glands. Common, along disturbed areas and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. I. pulchella auct. non Roxb. Large shrubs. Occasional, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan shola. Indigofera galegoides DC. Tall shrubs with pale red flowers. Occasional, in the ecotones in Mannavan Shola Indigofera spicata Forssk. Indigofera endecaphylla Jacq. Trailing annual or biennial herbs. Common, along road sides and disturbed areas in Mannavan Shola. Neonotonia wightii (Graham ex Wight & Arn.) Lackey Notonia wightii Graham ex Wight & Arn.; Glycine javanica auct. non L. Glycine wightii (Graham ex Wight & Arn.) Verdc. Twining herbs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. Trailing slender herbs rooting at nodes. Common, in grasslands, mostly in moist areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. 51

58 Shuteria vestita Wight &Am. Twinning herbs. Common, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, Tephrosia tinctoria Pres. Procumbent undershrubs or herbs, with golden brown pubescence on stems and peduncles. Common, along ecotones and open areas in Mannavan Shola. Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schind. Desmodium rufescens DC.; Uraria hamosa Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Undershrubs, stem terete, woody. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, Vigna radiata (L.) Wilezek var. radiata Phaseolus radiatus L.; P. mungo L. var. radiatus (L.) Baker Suberect pubescent herbs. Fairly common, in the ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilezek var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc. Phaseolus sublobatus Roxh.; P. trinervius Heyne ex Wight & Arn. Slender hairy climbers. Occasional, found in open areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. Dolichos trilobatus L.; Phaseolus trilobatus (L) Schreb. Diffuse herbs. Common, along shola margins and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. FLACOURTIACEAE Casearia coriacea Thw. Small trees Fairly common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Hydnocarpus alpina Wight Large trees, young shoots glabrous. Very common, in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam GENTIANACEAE Exacum courtallense Arn. Perennial herbs with fleshy leaves. Rare, in grassland ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 52

59 Exacum wightianum Am. E. atropurpureum Bedd. var. palghatense Gamble Erect herbs upto 1 m high. Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Gentiana quadrifaria Blume var. zeylanica (Griseb.) Kusnezov C. zeylanica Griseb.; G. quadrifaria auct. non Blume Erect herbs. Fairly common, along road sides in higher altitudes in Mannavan shola and Eravikulam. Swertia corymbosa (Griseb.) Wight ex Clarke Ophelia corymbosa Griseb. Erect herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Geranium nepalense Sweet G. affine Wight & Am. Slender diffuse perennial herbs. GERANIACEAE Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. GESNERIACEAE Aeschynanthus perrottetii A. DC. A. ceylanica sensu Wight non Gard.; A. perrottetii A. DC. var. planiculmis Clarke; A. planiculmis (Clarke) Gamble Scandent epiphytic undershrubs. Common, in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Didymocarpus tomentosus Wight Scapigerous lithophytic herbs. Common, along road sides and other exposed regions in Mannavan shola. HALORAGACEAE Laurembergia coccinea (Blume) Ken. Epilithes coccinea Blume; Serpicula brevitis Wight & Am.; S. hirsuta Wight & Arn Small perennial herbs. Occasional, in moist areas in the grasslands in Eravikulam. HYPERICACEAE Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murr. Erect herbs. Rare, in open marshy areas in the grasslands in Eravikulam. 53

60 Hypericum mysurense Heyne ex Wight & Am. Norysca mysurensis (Heyne ex Wight & Am.) Wight Large shrubs with yellow flowers. Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. ICACINACEAE Apodytes dimidiata E. Meyer ex Am. A. benthamiana Wight; A. beddumei Mast. Medium sized trees. Fairly common, in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola. Gomphandra coriacea Wight G. polymurpha Wight Small trees. Very common in interior forests and also along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Nothapodytes nimmoniana (Graham) Mabber. Premna nimmoniana Graham; Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer; Mappia foetida (Wight) Miers Large shrubs to small trees. Occasional, in shola margins in Eravikulam. LAMIACEAE Coleus harhatus (Andr.) Benth. Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Pubescent herbs. Fairly common, in the ecotones and road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Coleus malabaricus Benth. Herbs, stem obtusely 4-angled, purple. Common, in interior regions in Mannavan Shola Leucas chinensis (Retz.) R. Br. Phlomis chinensis Retz. Shrubby scandent hairy herbs. Common, often found in the ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Leucas hirta (Heyne ex Roth) Spreng. Phlomis hirta Heyne ex Roth Small shrubs with stout rootstock Fairly common, in open areas in Mannavan Shola. 54

61 Leucas indica (L.) R. Br. Leonurus indicus L.; Leucas linifolia (Roth) Spreng; Phlomis linifolia Roth; Leucas lavenduliifolia J. E. Sm. Erect annual herbs. Fairly common, in the open areas in Mannavan Shola. Leucas lamifolia Desf. Large straggling herbs with tawny villous stem and leaves. Common, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Leucas lanceaefolia Desf. Undershrubs with tetrangular tomentose stem. Common, along the ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Leucas suffruticosa Benth. Low shrubs with many slender stems from thick woody rootstock. Fairly common, in grasslands of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Micromeria biflora Benth. Aromatic wiry herbs. Common, in the grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq.; Plectranthus forskohlii Willd. ; Coleus barbatus (Andr.) Benth. Herbs with tetrangular pubescent stem. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola Pogostemon pubescens Benth. P. parviflorus Benth. Herbs. Common, along ecotones and open areas in Mannavan Shola Pogostemon wightii Benth. Erect herbs, 30 cm high with pink or reddish pubescent branches. Common, in wet places in Mannavan Shola. Scutellaria violacea Heyne Erect herbs. Common, in moist areas along road sides in Mannavan Shola. LAURACEAE Actinodaphne bourdillonii Gamble Large trees. Rare, in the interior sholas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 55

62 Actinodaphne salicina Meissner Medium sized trees. Rare, in the interior sholas of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Beilschmiedia wightii (Nees) Benth. ex Hook. f. Haasia wightii Nees Large trees. Occasional, in the interior forests of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Cinnamomum wightii Meissner Stout medium sized trees. Common, throughout in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Litsea florihunda (Blume) Gamble Cylicodaphne floribunda Blume; Tetranthera wightiana sensu Bedd. non Nees Litsea wightiana Hook. f. Large trees. Common, in the sholas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Litsea wightiana (Nees) Hook. f. Cylicodaphne wightiana Nees Large evergreen trees with tawny branchlets and foliage. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm. Laurus cassia L.; Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees) Merr.; Litsea zeylanica Nees Small or moderate-sized trees. Occasional, in the interior regions in Mannavan Shola. Neolitsea fischeri Gamble Large trees. Fairly common, in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Neolitsea scrohiculata (Meissner) Gamble Litsea scrobiculata Meissner; L. zeylanica sensu Hook. f Moderate sized trees Common, in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Macranthus macrantha Nees Large evergreen trees with flowers in subterminal panicle. Common, in the interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam 56

63 LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia caerulea L. U. nivea Vahl: U. racemosa Wall. ex Walp. Erect herbs with pale blue flowers. Common, in wet places in grasslands at higher altitudes in Eravikulam. Utricularia nayarii Janath. & Henry Erect slender herbs. Common, in marshy places in the grasslands in Eravikulam. LOBELIACEAE Lobelia heyneana Schultes L. trialuta Buch.-Ham. ex Don: L. zeylanica auct. non L. An erect annual herbs Occasional, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Lobelia leschenaultiana (Presl) Skottsh: Rapuntium leschenaultianum Presl; Lobelia excelsa Lesch. Large herbs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. LOGANIACEAE Fagraea ceilanica Thunb. F. obovata Wall; F. malabarica Wight Small trees, generally epiphytic when young. Occasional, along stream banks and ecotones in Mannavan Shola Gardneria ovata Wall. G. wallichii Wight Climbing shrubs. Common, along the shola margins in Mannavan Shola. LORANTHACEAE Dendrophthoe memecylifolia (Wight & Am.) Danser Loranthus memecylifolius Wight & Am. Stout glabrous parasitic shrubs. Fairly common, in Mannavan Shola. Helixanthera intermedia (Wight) Danser Loranthus intermedius Wight Stout parasite shrubs. Fairly common, in interior areas in Mannavan Shola.

64 Helixanthera obtusata (Schultes) Danser Loranthus obtusarus Schultes Large parasite shrubs. Fairly common, in interior areas in Mannavan Shola. Korthalsella japonica (Thunh.) Engl. Viscum japonicum Thunb. Leafless parasitic herbs. Rare, in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Macrosolen parasiticus (L.) Danser Lonicera parasitica L.; Loranthus loniceroides L.; Elytranthe loniceroides (L.) G. Don Large parasitic shrubs. Fairly common, in interior areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Macrosolen capitellatus (Wight & Am.) Danser Loranthus capitellatus Wight & Am.; Elytranthe capitellata (Wight & Am.) Engl. Parasitic shrubs. Fairly common, in interior areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Taxillus tomentosus (Heyne ex Roth) Tieghem Loranthus tomentosus Heyne ex Roth Small parasitic shrubs Very common, in Mannavan Shola. Viscum sp. Yellow coloured parasitic herbs Rare, found in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola LYTHRACEAE Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne Peplis indica Willd.; Ammannia peploides Spreng.; Ameletia indica (Willd.) DC. Much branched herbs. Common, in marshy, disturbed forest ecotone regions in Mannavan Shola. MAGNOLIACEAE Michelia nilagirica Zenk. Medium sized trees. Common, in higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam MALVACEAE Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Am. Hibiscus angulosus (Wall, ex Wight & Arn.) Steud.; H. setinervis Dunn Erect herbs or undershruhs with thick bristly hairs. Common, along road sides and stream sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 58

65 Sida rhombifolia L. S. rhomboidea Roxb. Pubescent herbs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Urena lobata L. Erect undershrubs. Common, in disturbed forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. MELASTOMATACEAE Medinilla malabarica Bedd. Epiphytic shrubs. Rare, along stream banks at high altitudes in Eravikulam. Memecylon edule Roxb. Small trees. Rare, in the interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Osbeckia aspera (L.) Blume var. wightiana (Benth. ex Wight &Arn.) Trimen 0. wightiana Benth. Much branched shrubs. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Osbeckia leschenaultiana DC. Bushy shrubs. Common, along grassland ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Sonerila speciosa Zenk. Erect fleshy herbs Common, in disturbed areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam MELIACEAE Aglaia apiocarpa (Thw.) Hiern Milnea apiocarpa Thw. Small trees. Occasional, in interior areas in Mannavan Shola. Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Melia baccifera Roth.; Cipadessa fruticosa Blume Small trees or shrubs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam 59

66 Trichilia connaroides (Wight & Am.) Bent. Zanthoxylum connaroides Wight & Am.; Heynea trijuga Roxb. ex Sims; Heynea affinis A. Juss. Medium sized trees. Occasional, along the ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. MENISPERMACEAE Cocculus laurifolius DC. Small trees. Fairly common, in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers Menispermum japonicum Thunb.; Stephania hernandifolia sensu Hook. f.; Cyclea hernandifolia Wight & Arn. Climbing shrubs, stems glabrous. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. MORACEAE Ficus amplocarpa Govindarajalu & Masilamoney F. macrocarpa (Miq.) Wight ex King; Pogonorrophe macrocarpa Miq.; Ficus laevis Blume var. macrocarpa (Miq.) Comer Tall scandent shrubs. Occasional, along water courses and in interior areas in Mannavan Shola. MYRSINACEAE Ardisia rhomboidea Wight Small trees. Very common, in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. Baeobotrys indica Roxb.; Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC. var. perrottetiana (A. DC.) Clarke; Maesa perrottetiana A. DC. Shrubs to small trees. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Rapanea capitellata Mez var. sessilis Gamble Small trees. Occasional, along shola margins at higher altitudes in Mannavan shola and Eravikulam. Rapanea thwaitesii Mez Small trees. Rare, along shola margins at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 60

67 Rapanea wightiana (Wall. ex DC.) Mez Myrsine wightiana Wall.; M. capitellata Wall. var. lanceolata Clarke M. capitellata sensu Wight Small trees. Common, along shola margins and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. MYRTACEAE Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Large trees. Very common, in ecotones and in grasslands at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam; probably escaped from cultivation. Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maid. Large trees. In ecotones and in grasslands at lowers altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, established from earlier plantations. Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk. Myrtus tomentosa Ait. Thickly tomentose shrubs with grey tomentose foliage. Fairly common, in exposed regions and in shola margins in Mannavan shola and Eravikulam. Syzygium caryophyllatnm (L.) Alston Myrtus caryophyllata L.; Syzygium caryophyllaeum auct. non Gaertn.; Eugenia caryophyllaea Wight Small trees. Common. both in interior areas and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Syzygium cumini (L) Skeels Myrtus cummini L.; Eugenia jambolana Lam.; Syzygium jambolanum (Lam.) DC. Large trees. Common in ecotones as well as interior areas at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Syzygium densiflorum Wall. ex Wight & Am. S. arnottianum Walp.; Eugenia arnottiana (Walp.) Wight Large trees, bark grey, rough. Fairly common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. OLEACEAE Chionanthus linocieroides (Wight) Bennet & Razaida Olea linocieroides Wight; Linociera wighrii Clarke Medium sized trees. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam 61

68 Chionanthus ramiflorus Roxb. var. peninsularis Ravikumar & Lakshmanan Medium sized trees. Occasional, in the shola margins of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Jasminum bignoniaceum Wall. ex G. Don J. humile sensu Clarke Shrubs with angular branchlets, flowers yellow Rare, in interior forests in Eravikulam. Jasminum roxburghianum Wall. Pubescent climbing shrubs. Occasional, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan shola Ligustrum rohustum (Roxb.) Blume. subsp. walkeri (Decne.) P. S. Green L. walkeri Decne. Small trees. Occasional, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Ligustrum perrottetii DC. L. neilgherrense Wight Large shrubs. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Olea glandulifera Wall. ex G. Don O. bournei Fyson Medium sized trees with white flowers. Occasional, along road sides and interior forests in Mannavan shola ONAGRACEAE Circaea alpina L. subsp. imaicola (Asch. & Magn. ) Kitamura C. alpina L. var. imaicola Asch. & Magn.; C. alpina sensu Wight Small herbs with white flowers. Very rare, in shady places in interior areas in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Oenothera tetraptera Cav. Perennial herbs. Rare, found in disturbed forest ecotones in Mannavan Shola OROBANCHACEAE Christisonia bicolor Grand. C. auranriaca Wight Fleshy root parasites. Rare, mainly parasitic on Strobilanthes sp. in Mannavan Shola 62

69 Campbellia cytinoides Wight Christisonia nilagirica Gard. Fleshy parasitic herbs, yellow with pink shades Very rare, in shady interior areas in Mannavan Shola. Biophytum intermedium Wight OXALIDACEAE Small branched herbs. Rare, found along road sides and in other exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. var. candolleanum (Wight) Edgew. & Hook. f. B. candolleanum Wight Annual herbs, up to 20 cm tall, stem unbranched. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Oxalis corniculata L. Trailing herbs, rooting at nodes. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. PASSIFLORACEAE Passiflora edulis Sims Tendril climbing shrubs. Occasional, found along road sides and hedges at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Passiflora leschenaultii DC. Tendril climbing shrubs Common, along road sides and shola margins in Mannavan Shola. PIPERACEAE Peperomia portulacoides A. Dietr. P. courtallensis Miq. Small, erect and succulent epiphytic herbs. Occasional, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Peperomia tetraphylla (Forst. f.) Hook. & Arn. Piper tetraphyllum Forst. f.; Peperomia reflexa (L. f.) Dietr.; Piper reflexum L. f. Small, epiphytic herbs, erect and succulent. Common, in interior forests and in exposed regions in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Piper mullesua Buch.-Ham. P. brachystachyum Wall. Much branched woody climbers. Occasional, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola 63

70 Piper wightii Miq. Short climber with smooth stems. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. PITTOSPORACEAE Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn. Small trees. Common, along shola margins and ecotones at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago erosa Wall. P. major sensu Hook. f.; P. asiatica auct. non L. Scapigerous herbs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola PODOSTEMACEAE Zeylanidium olivaceum (Gard.) Engl. Small aquatic herbs Occasional, in the streams and lakes in Eravikulam. POLYGALACEAE Polygala arillata Buch.-Ham. Large erect shrubs. Common, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Polygala rosmarinifolia Wight & Arn. Sufftutescent annual herbs. Occasional, in grasslands at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Polygala sibirica L. P. sibirica L. var. heyneana (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Bennet; P. heyneana Wall. Perennial herbs. Rare, found along road sides in Mannavan Shola. POLYGONACEAE Polygonum chinense L. Scandent under shrubs. Common, along moist areas, road sides and stream sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Polygonum nepalense Meissner Polygonurn alarum Buch.-Ham. ex Spreng.; Polygonum punctatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Procumbent herbaceous weed. Common, along road sides and stream banks at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. 64

71 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Tall stout annual or perennial herbs Common, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. Small branching succulent herbs. Rare, in wet places at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. PRIMULACEAE Lysimachia procumbens Baudo L. deltoidea Wight Slender trailing herbs. Occasional, in ecotones and grasslands in Eravikulam. PROTEACEAE Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. Large trees. Common, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, probably planted earlier. RANUNCULACEAE Anemone rivularis Hamilton Perennial herbs with white flowers. Occasional, in ecotones and grasslands in Eravikulam. Ranunculus reniformis Wall. Perennial herbs with yellow flowers. Common, found along road sides and in ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Ranunculus wallichianus Wight & Arn. Perennial herbs. Common, found along road sides and interior forests in Mannavan Shola RHAMNACEAE Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Woody climbers with prickles. Occasional, along shola ecotones at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. ROSACEAE Photinia integrifolia Lindl. var. sublanceolata Miq. Photinia notoniana Wight & Arn. Small trees. Common in Mannavan Shola. 65

72 Photinia serratifolia (Desf.) Kalkman Crataegus serratifolia Desf.; Photinia lindleyana Wight & Arn. Small trees. Rare, found in shola margins and ecotones in Eravikulam. Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq. Polydontia ceylanica Wight; Pygeum acuminatum Coleb; P. gardneri Hook, f. Large trees. Common, found along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. Amygdalus persica L. Small trees with drooping branches. Occasional, in disturbed forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola, probably planted earlier. Rubus ellipticus Sm. R. gowreephul Roxb. Large straggling shrubs with stiff hairs and prickles. Common, along the road sides and shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Rubus leucocarpus Arn. R. lasiocarpus Sm. var. subglaber Thw.; R. niveus Thunb..var. subglaber (Thw.) Gamble Straggling shrubs with prickles. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Rubus micropetalus Gard. R. moluccanus sensu Hook. f. Prickle climbers with recurved prickles. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. RUBIACEAE Chassalia curviflora (Wall. ex Kurz) Thw. var. ophioxyloides (Wall.) Deb. & Krishna Psychotria ophioxyloides Wall.; Chssalia curviflora Wall; Psychorria ambigua Wight & Arn. Small shrubs with membranous leaves. Common, in shady interior forests, shola margins and along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Galium asperifolium Wall. Galium mollugo sensu Hook. Scandent, rambling, scabrous herbs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. 66

73 Hedyotis anamalayana (Gamble) Rao & Hem. Oldenlandia anamalayana Gamble; Hedyotis lessertiana sensu Bedd. Slender erect undershrubs. Rare, found along shola margins in Mannavan Shola. Hedyotis articularis R. Br. subsp. santapaui (Shetty & Vivek.) Deb. & Dutta H. santapaui Shetty & Vivek. Stiff shrubs. Common, in the ecotones and along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Hedyotis buxifolia Bedd. Oldenlandia buxifolia (Bedd.) Kuntze Stiff shrubs. Rare, found in wet grasslands in Eravikulam. Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Small herbs. Occasional, found along road sides and in ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Hedyotis stylosa R. Br. ex Wight & Arn. Oldenlandia stylosa (R. Br. ex Wight & Arn.) Kuntze Large shrubs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Hedyotis swertioides Hook. f. Oldenlandia swertioides (Hook. f.) Kuntze Low shrubs. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Ixora notoniana Wall. ex G. Don Small trees Occasional, along shola borders in Eravikulam. Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. var. hookeriana Bhattacharjee & Deb. K. mollis auct. non R. Br. Straggling herbs, sometimes woody at base. Common, in disturbed areas in Mannavan Shola. Lasianthus acuminatus Wight Shrubs. Abundant, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 67

74 Mussaenda hirsutissima (Hook. f.) Hutchinson M. frondosa L. var. hirsutissima Hook. f. Large climbing shrubs, branchlets roughly hirsute-pilose. Common, along shola margins at lower elevations in Mannavan Shola. Neanotis indica (DC.) W. H. Lewis var. affinis (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) W. H. Lewis Hedyotis affinis Wall. ex Wight & Am.; Anotis leschenaultiana (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Hook. f. var. affinis (Wall. ex Wight & Am.) Hook. f. Small herbs. Occasional, along road sides and ecotones at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Neanotis indica (DC.) W. H. Lewis var. indica Putoria indica DC.: Anotis leschenaultiana (Wall. ex Wight & Arn. ) Hook. f.; Hedyotis leschenaultiana Wall. ex Wight & Am. Tufted perennial herbs, stem rooting at nodes. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Neanotis longiflora (Hutchinson) W. H. Lewis Anotis longiflora Hutchinson Erect perennial herbs. Common. in disturbed areas in Mannavan Shola. Neanotis monosperma (Wall. ex Wight &Am.) W. H. Lewis var. monosperma Hedyotis monosperma Wall. ex Wight & Am.; Anotis monosperma (Wall. ex Wight &Am.) Hook. f. Slender herbs. Rare, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Ophiorrhiza grandiflora Wight Erect under shrubs. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Am. Erect undershrubs. Occasional, in interior forests in Eravikulam. Pavetta breviflora DC. Shrubs with white flowers. Occasional, along shola margins in Eravikulam Psychotria elongata (Wight) Hook. Grumilea elongata Wight Large shrubs. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola. 68

75 Psychotria nilgiriensis Deb. & Gang. var. nilgiriensis P. congesta (Wight & Arn.) Hook. f.; Grumilea congesta Wight & Am. Large shrubs with white flowers Common, both in shola borders and interior areas in Mannavan Shola. Psychotria sp. Small shrubs. Occasional, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola Rubia cordifolia L. R. munjista Roxb. Climbing herbs, very scabrous. Occasional, along shola margins and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Saprosma foetens (Wight) K. Scbum. Lasianthus foetens Wight; Saprosma ceylanicum (Gard.) Bedd.; Dysodidendron ceylanica Gard.; Serissa wightii Bedd. Tall shrubs, bad smelling when bruised. Common undergrowth in the shola interiors in Mannavan Shola. Spermacoce hispida L. Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum.; B. articularis (L. f.) F. Williams; Spermacoce articularis L. f. Hispid herbs. Occasional, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Wendlandia thyrsoidea (Schultes) Steud. Canthium thyrsoideum Schultes; Wendlandia notoniana Wall. Small trees. Occasional, in the ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam RUTACEAE Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Miq. Jambolifera pedunculata L.; Acronychia laurifolia Blume; A. barberi Gamble Small trees. Common, in interior forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Atalantia ceylanica Oliv. Thorny shrubs. Occasional, in disturbed forest ecotones at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Paullinia asiatica L.; Toddalia aculeata Pers. Scandent shrubs with prickles on the stem. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. 69

76 Zanthoxylum tetraspermum Wight & Am. Climbing shrubs with prickly stems. Common, along shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola SABIACEAE Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. ssp. barbatula (Cufod) Bues. M. rhoifolia Maxim. subsp. barbatula Cufod.; M. arnottiana (Wight) Walp.; Millingtonia arnottiana Wight Small to medium sized trees. Occasional, along road sides and shola margins at Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. subsp. simplicifolia Millingtonia simplicifolia Roxb. Small trees. Common, along road sides and other exposed regions at lower elevations in Mannavan Shola. Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walp. subsp. pungens (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Beus. Millingtonia pungens Wall. ex Wight & Arn.: Meliosma wightii Planch. ex Brandis Medium sized trees. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. SAPOTACEAE Isonandra candolleana Wight Medium sized trees. Common, in the interior forests of Mannavan Shola SAPINDACEAE Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Ptelea viscosa L. Stiff shrubs or small trees Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola SAXIFRAGACEAE Parnassia mysorensis Heyne Small herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands and along road sides at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. SCROPHULARIACEAE Dopatrium nudicaule (Willd.) Benth. Gratiola nudicaulis Willd. Slender erect herbs Occasional, along the sides of water courses in Mannavan Shola. 70

77 Pedicularis perrottetii Benth. Semiparasitic herbs with long white flowers. Occasional, in grasslands and ecotones at higher altitudes in Eravikulam. Pedicularis zeylanica Benth. Semiparasitic herbs with rose-pink flowers. Fairly common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Sopubia delphiniifolia (L.) G. Don Gerardia delphiniifolia L. Erect herbs. Occasional, in exposed forests and grassy slopes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Small herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze var. asiatica Small erect parasitic herbs. Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Eravikulam. SOLANACEAE Lycianthes laevis (Dunal) Bitter Solanum laeve Dunal Subscandent undershrubs. Occasional, in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola. Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. Atropa physaloides L. Erect herbs Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Physalis peruviana L. Erect or rambling perennial herbs. Common, along road sides, at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Solanum anguivi Lam. var. multiflora (Roth ex Roem. & Schultes) Chithra S. multiflorum Roth; S. indicum var. multiflora (Roth ex Roem. & Schultes) Clarke; S. ferox L. var. minus Wight Large undershrubs, armed with stout and curved prickles on leaves and stem. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Solanum giganteum Jacq. Large shrubs. Fairly common, in disturbed forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. 71

78 Solanum nigrum L. S. rubrum Mill. Unarmed herbs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola STAPHYLEACEAE Turpinia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. Triceros cochinchinensis Lour.; Turpinia nepalensis Wall.; T. pomifera sensu Hiern Moderate sized trees. Common, along road sides and in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Symplocos anamalayana Bedd. Small trees. SY MPLOCACEAE Rare, along road sides and in ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Syrnplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore subsp. laurina (Retz.) Nooteb. Myrtus laurinus Retz.; Symplocos spicata Roxb. var. laurina (Retz.) Clarke Small trees. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Symplocos pendula Wight S. sessilis Clarke Small or moderate-sized trees. Rare, along ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Symplocos rnacrophylla Wall. ex A. DC. subsp. rosea (Bedd.) Nooteb. S. rosea Bedd.; S. barberi Gamble Small trees. Rare, found in the ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Symplocos sp. Small trees. Very rare, along road sides at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola. TERNSTROEMIACEAE Eurya nitida Korth. Eurya japonica Thunb. var. thunbergii Thw.; Eurya japonica auct. non Thunb. Small trees with glabrous young parts. Common, along road sides and in shola margins in Mannavan Shola Gordonia obtusa Wall. Tall trees with large white flowers. Occasional, along stream banks at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola 72

79 Ternstroemia japonica (Thunb.) Thunb. Cleyera japonica Thunh.; C. gymnanthera Wight & Arn. Moderate sized trees. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. THYMELEACEAE Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg Lasiosiphon glaucus Fresen.; Gnidia eriocephala Meissner; Lasiosiphon eriocephalus (Meissner) Decne. Large shrubs or small trees. Occasional, found in open forests and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. TlLlACEAE Grewia umbellifera Bedd. Scandent shrubs. Occasional, in ecotones at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Triumfetta pilosa Roth T. cana Blume Large perennial herbs. Common, along road sides and shola margins in Mannavan Shola ULMACEAE Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Celtis orientalis L. Medium sized trees Occasional, in disturbed forests at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola URTICACEAE Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. Urtica longifolia Burm. f.; Debregeasia velutina Gaudich. Large shrubs or small trees. Common, along stream sides, shola margins and road sides in Mannavan Shola. Droguetia diffusa Wedd. Forskohlia urticoides Wight Small diffuse herbs. Common, in shady places and also along road sides in Mannavan Shola Elatostema acuminatum Brongn. Procris acuminata Poir. Woody herbs. Found in moist, marshy areas along water courses in Mannavan Shola. 73

80 Elatostema lineolatum Wight var. falcigera Thw. Slender herbs with tomentose branches Common, in cool and moist habitats like stream sides in Mannavan Shola. Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis Urtica diversifolia Link; Girardinia heterophylla Decne.; G. zeylanica Decne.; G. heterophylla Decne. var. zeylanica (Decne.) Hook. f. Large strongly stinging herbs Very common, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Laportea bulhifera (Sieb & Zucc.) Wedd. Urtica bulbifera Sieb & Zucc.; Laportea terminalis Wight Erect herbs. Common, along road sides at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall. ex Royle) Wedd. Procis peduncularis Wall. ex Royle; Lecanthus wightii Wedd. Succulent epiphytic herbs. Fairly common, in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola. Pilea melastornoides (Poir.) Blume Urtica melastomoides Poir.; Pilea trinervia (Roxb.) Wight; Urtica trinervia Roxb Succulent herbs with swollen internodes. Common, in moist regions in Mannavan Shola. Pilea wightii Wedd. P. radicans Wight Small succulent herbs. Common, preferring shady moist environments such as stream sides in Mannavan Shola. Pouzolzia bennettiana Wight var. acuta (Wight) Fischer P. acuta Wight Erect herbs. Fairly common, along water courses or in other wet places in Mannavan Shola Pouzolzia wightii Benn. Tall herbs Common, in wet places and along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. VACCINIACEAE Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight var. leschenaultii Small trees with ovate-lanceolate leaves. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 74

81 Vaccinium leschenaultii Wight var. rotundifolia (Wight) Clarke V. rotundifolia Wight Small trees with orbicular leaves. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. VALERIAN ACEAE Valeriana beddomei Clarke Herbs with oblong radical leaflets. Rare, in the grassland ecotones and road sides in Eravikulam Valeriana hookeriana Wight & Arn. Pubescent herbs. Occasional, in shola ecotones and along road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam VERBENACEAE Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon Volkameria serrata L. Shrubs usually herbaceous but occasionally woody, with 4 angled stems Common, along shola margins at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. C. infortunarum auct. non L. Shrubs or small trees with tetragonal stem. Common, in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Mold. L. aculeata L. Rambling shrubs. Very common, along road sides and in disturbed forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Lantana indica Roxb. Erect shrubs. Fairly common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. VIOLACEAE Viola betonicifolia J. E. Sm. ssp. nepalensis (Ging.) Becker V. patrinii var. nepalensis Ging.; V. walkeri Wight Small stemless herbs. Common, along the road sides in Mannavan Shola Viola pilosa Blume V. serpens Wall. ex Ging.; V. wightiana Wall. ex Wight Small herbs. Fairly common, along road sides and in ecotones in Mannavan Shola. 75

82 VITACEAE Cayratia pedata (Lam.) Juss. Cissus pedata Lam.; Vitis pedata (Lam.) Wall. Large tomentose climbers. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Parthenocissus neilgherriensis (Wight) Planch. Vitis neilgherriensis Wight; V. himalayana Brandis; V. anamallayana Bedd Large climbers. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. Tetrastigma leucostaphylum (Dennst.) Alston Cissus leucostaphyla Dennst.; Tetrastigma muricatum (Wall. ex Wight & Arn.) Gamble Vitis muricata Wall. Large climbers, branchlets prominently warted. Common, along shola margins and disturbed forest regions in Mannavan Shola MONOCOTYLEDONS ARECACEAE Calamus gamhlei Beccari ex Beccari & Hook. f. Moderate sized scandent canes. Rare, in the interior forests of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Arisaema attenuatum Barnes & Fischer Tuberous herbs. Rare, at lower altitudes in Eravikulam ARACEAE Arisaema leschenaultii Blume Tuberous herbs, spathe with purple vertical streaks. Fairly common, in interior sholas or along shaded road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Arisaema sp. Tuberous herbs. Rare, in shady shola interiors in Mannavan Shola Commelina attenuata Koen. ex Vahl Slender spreading herbs. COMMELINACEAE Common, in exposed regions in Mannavan Shola 76

83 Commelina sp. Slender branching herbs. Fairly common, in exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. Cyanotis arachnoidea Clarke Prostrate hairy herbs. Occasional, in grasslands and along road sides at higher elevations in Mannavan Shola, Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don Commelina cristata L. Succulent herbs Fairly common, in exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. Cyanotis pilosa Schultes & Schultes f. Decumbent herbs. Common, along road sides or in other exposed regions in Mannavan Shola. Cyanotis villosa (Spreng.) Schultes & Schultes f. Tradescantia villosa Spreng.; Cyanotis lanceolata Wight Fleshy herbs with deep purple stem and leaves. Common, in the ecotones in Mannavan Shola. CYPERACEAE Bulbostylis densa (Wall.) Hand.-Mazz. Scirpus densus Wall.; Bulbostylis capillaris var. trifida (Nees) Clarke; Isolepis trifida Nees Small herbs. Common, in wet shady places and along stream banks in Mannavan Shola. Carex baccans Nees Coarse perennial herbs, stems robust, upto 2 m. Very common, mostly along sides of water courses in Mannavan Shola. Carex filicina Nees Perennial herbs, stems sparsely tufted. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Carex lindleyana Nees Herbs with perennial rhizomes, leaves mainly at the base of stem. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Carex myosurus Nees Erect herbs with stout rhizome. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola.

84 Carex phacota Spreng. Herbs, stems leafy mainly at the base. Common, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, Cyperus cyperinus (Retz.) Valcken Kyllinga cyperina Retz.; Mariscus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl Perennial herbs. Common, in moist shady places, along river banks in Mannavan Shola Fimbristylis kingii Clarke Annual herbs. Fairly common, in moist places, along road sides and in grasslands in Mannavan Shola Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Small perennial herbs. Fairly common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola, Pycreus globosus (All.) Reichb. Cyperus globosus All.; Pycreus capillaris Nees var. nilagiricus C.B. Clarke Small herbs. Fairly common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Scirpus articulatus L. Schoenoplectus articulatus (L.) Palla Herbs. Common, in moist, boggy lands at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. ERIOCAULACEAE Eriocaulon brownianum Mart. var. nilagirense Fyson Large herbs. Common, in water logged areas of the grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Eriocaulon pectinatum Ruhl. Small herbs. Common, in water logged areas in the grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. HAEMODORACEAE Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don Ophiopogon indicus Wight Erect rhizomatous herbs Common, in shady interior forests in Mannavan Shola. 78

85 HYPOXIDACEAE Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. C. malabarica Wight Herbs with elongated rhizomatous root stock. Common, in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola. Hypoxis aurea Lour. Erect herbs. Very rare, found in interior sholas in Mannavan Shola. IRIDACEAE Aristea ecklonii Baker Bilaterally flattened herbs. Fairly common, along road sides and in grassland ecotones at higher altitudes in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. JUNCACEAE Juncus bufonius L. Erect herbs, stems densely clustered. Occasional, found in moist shady regions along water courses and road sides in Mannavan Shola. Juncus inflexus L. J. glaucus Ehrh. Glabrous herbs. Common, along road sides and wet areas in Mannavan Shola. Juncus prismatocarpus R. Br Glabrous, erect herbs. Common, along road sides in Mannavan Shola. LlLlACEAE Asparagus racemosus Willd. Climbing shrubs with stipular spines. Very common, along shola margins at lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola Lilium wallichianum Schultes & Schultes f. var. neilgherrense (Wight) Hara L. neilgherrense Wight Woody, unbranched leafy herbs with bulbous base. Rare, found along road sides, grassland ecotones and in other open areas in Mannavan Shola. 79

86 Peliosanthes teta Andr. Peliosanthes neilgherrensis Wight; P. courtallensis Wight Scapigerous herbs with creeping root stock. Rare, found in interior forests and in slightly exposed regions in Mannavan Shola ORCHIDACEAE Aerides ringens (Lindl.) Fischer Saccolabium ringens Lindl.; Saccolabium rubrum Wight Stout epiphytic herbs. Common, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Anoectochilus elatus Lindl. Terrestrial leafy herbs, stems creeping below. Rare, in shady and moist habitats in Mannavan Shola Brachycorythis splendida Summerh. Habenaria iantha Hook. f.; Phyllomphax obcordata Schult. var. iantha Fischer Terrestrial herbs. Rare, found in ecotones and open grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Bulbophyllum fischeri Seidenfaden Cirrhopetalum macraei sensu Wight; C. wightii Thw.; C. gamblei Hook.; Bulbophyllum gamblei (Hook. f.) J. J. Sm. Small epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Very rare, found along shola margins in Eravikulam. Calanthe masuca (D. Don) Lindl. Bletia masuca D. Don.; Calanthe emarginata Wight Terrestrial herbs. Common, in moist shady places in Mannavan Shola, Cheirostylis flabellata Wight Herbs with creeping rhizome. Rare, along road sides in moist, shady places in Mannavan Shola, Chrysoglossum maculatum (Thw.) Hook. f. Ania maculata Thw. Pseudobulbous herbs, pseudobulbs 1-leaved; racemes lateral. Common, in interior forests of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Coelogyne mossiae Rolfe Epiphytic herbs with white flowers. Rare, found along shola margins in Eravikulam. 80

87 Dendrobium anamalayanum Chandrabose et al Epiphytic herbs. Rare, along shola margins in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Diplocentrum recurvum Lindl. Epiphytic herbs with narrow leaves. Rare, at lower altitudes mostly on Syzygium cumini in Mannavan Shola. Eria nana A. Rich. Dendrobium filiforme Wight Very small epiphytic herbs. Rare, in interior forests in Eravikulam. Eria pseudoclavicaulis Blatter Epiphytic herbs with pinkish white flowers Rare, along shola margins in Eravikulam. Habenaria elliptica Wight Herbs with greenish flowers Rare, in the ecotones and grasslands in Eravikulam. Habenaria heyneana Lindl. Herb with white flowers. Rare, in ecotones and grasslands in Eravikulam. Habenaria longicorniculata Graham H. longicalcarata A. Rich. Tall herbs with white flowers. Occasional, in ecotones and grasslands in Eravikulam. Habenaria perrottetiana A. Rich. Platanthera lutea Wight Herbs with tuberous roots. Rare, in grasslands in Eravikulam. Liparis wightiana Thw. Small fleshy herbs. Rare, in disturbed forest floors in Mannavan Shola. Oberonia arnottiana Wight 0. wightiana Lindl. var. arnottiana (Wight) Ansari et al; 0. wightiana Lindl. var. nilgirensis Ansari et al Pendulous epiphytic herbs. Occasional. in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. 81

88 Oberonia chandrasekharanii Nair et al Epiphytic herbs with fleshy distichous leaves. Occasional, in the interior forests in Mannavan Shola Oberonia wightiana Lindl. Malaxis wightiana (Lindl.) Kuntze Epiphytic herbs. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Oberonia sebastiana Shetty & Vivek. Pendulous epiphytic herbs. Common, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Oberonia thwaitesii Hook. f. Pendulous epiphytic herbs. Common in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Satyrium nepalense D. Don Terrestrial unbranched herbs with tuberous roots Rare, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam Seidenfadeniella chrysantha (Alston) Sathish Saccolabium chrysanthum Alston; Sarcanthus filiformis Wight; Saccolabium filiforme Lindl. Epiphyte with needle like leaves. Rare, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. POACEAE Agrostis peninsularis Hook. f. Annual herbs Rare, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Apluda mutica L. A. varia Hack. subsp. mutica (L.) Hack. Ascending or decumbent leafy perennials Common, in open disturbed sites and road sides in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Arundinella vaginata Bor A. villosa var. heynei Hook. f.; A. villosa auct. non Arn. ex Steud. Perennial herbs. Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 82

89 Chrysopogon zeylanicus (Nees ex Steud.) Thw. Andropogon zeylanicus Nees Erect herbs. Occasional, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats. Andropogon flexuosus Nees ex Steud.; A. nardus L. var. flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Hack. Tall aromatic perennial herbs. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Cymbopogon travancorensis Bor Perennial herbs. Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola Digitaria wallichiana (Wight &Arn. ex Steud.) Stapf Panicum wallichianum Wight & Arn. ex Steud.; Paspalum perrottetii Hook, f. Tufted herbs. Common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Eragrostis nigra Nees Small herbs. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poa unioloides Retz.; Eragrostis amabilis sensu Hook. f. Erect herbs. Common, along road sides and in grasslands in Mannavan Shola. Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) Kuntze Pollinia phaeothrix Hack. Erect herbs with basal sheaths having a chocolate coloured indumentum. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Isachne walkeri (Arn. ex Steud.) Wight & Arn. ex Thw. Panicum walkeri Arn. ex Steud. Perennial herbs. Occasional, along road sides and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. Ischaemum indicum (Houtt.) Merr. Phleum indicum Houtt.; lschaemum ciliare Retz.; I. aristatum sensu Fischer Slender herbs. Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. 83

90 Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Carnus Pollinia ciliata Trin. Tall herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands of Mannavan Shola. Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv. Panicum burmannii Retz. Slender herbs. Common, dong road sides in Mannavan Shola Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. Panicum compositum L. Procumbent or suberect perennial herbs. Common, dong road sides and grasslands in Mannavan Shola Poa aunua L. Annual herbs. Common, along road sides and in grasslands of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Setaria palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf Panicum palmaefolium Koen.; P. plicatum sensu Hook. f., non Lam Perennial herbs. Fairly common, along road sides in the grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schultes Panicum panilum Poir.; Setaria pallidefusca (Schum.) Stapf & Hubbard; Panicum pailidefuscum Schum. Tufted annual herbs. Common. in the grasslands of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Sinarundinaria densifolia (Munro) Chao & Renv. Arundinaria densifolia Munro; Chimonobambusa densifolia (Munro) Nakai Erect woody shrubs. Rare, along road sides, ecotones and interior forests in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Sinarundinaria microphylla (Munro) Chao & Renv. Arundinaria microphylla Munro; Yushania microphylla (Munro) R. Majumdar Small woody shrubs. Very rare, found as patches along stream banks in the grasslands. Sorghum nitidum (Vahl) Pers. Holcus nitidus Vahl; Andropogon serratus Thunb.; Sorghum serratum (Thunb.) Kuntze Perennial herbs. Fairly common, in grasslands in Mannavan Shola.

91 Themeda triandra Forssk. Anthistiria imberbis Retz. Dense perennial herbs. Common, in ecotones and grasslands in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Tripogon bromoides Roem. & Schultes Slender herbs. Common, in the grasslands of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. Zenkeria elegans Trin Tall perennial herbs. Common, in grasslands and ecotones in Mannavan Shola. SMILACACEAE Smilax aspera L. S. maculata Roxb. Climbing shrubs with prickles. Occasional, in interior forests in Mannavan Shola. Smilax wightii A. DC. Climbing shrubs. Occasional, at higher elevation in Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam. ZINGIBERACEAE Hedychium flavescens Carey ex Rosc. H. coronarium Koen. var. flavescens (Carey ex Rose.) Baker Erect herbs with tuberous root stock Common, along water courses in lower altitudes in Mannavan Shola.

92 Chapter 4 COMMUNITY ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 4.1 Introduction Ecology deals with interaction of organisms with their external environment (Odum, 1971). Taken each individual organism separately, or in terms of individual sections of the biota, the remaining sects or organisms form part of their external environment. Community ecology therefore examines the result of differentiation of individual parametric properties of the different sectors of the community, often relating the facts to the integrated results. In the ecology of the higher plants therefore, phytosociology forms a major domain of ecological research (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974; Kimmins, 1987), providing indications on the interactions between the segments of the community. The paucity of community ecological studies on shola forests, as in floristic studies, owe to the poor economic bearing of the shola forest resources, their restricted extent, remote access and the hostile climate. In addition, the high diversity of flora and the fewer rigorous floristic studies of the vegetal type is yet another impediment (For details refer: Chaprer 2. Floristic studies). 4.2 Review of Literature Descriptions of the subtropical hill forests and the montane wet temperate forests (Champion, 1936; Champion and Seth, 1968) were largely based on visual assessment of preponderance or dominance of species, and were not really based on quantitative enumerations. Early synecological attempts concerning the stand parameters of the shola forests were available in the studies by Champion (1936) and Ranganathan (1938). There has been a gap of several years after these pioneering studies, on the subject. The magnificent grassy expanses and the mosaic of hundreds of small and larger glens scattered within it and which gulp and eject the cloudy mist, canvassed the landscape of the Nilgiri plateaux before the invasion of people and massive agriculture there (Ranganathan, 1938). These glens, the shola forests, received some research attention, although as an offside of the grassland studies. The studies of Aganval et al. (1961), Gupta (1960, 1962 a b, 1971), Vishnu-Mittre and Gupta (1968), Vishnu-Mittre (1971) and Meher-Homji (1986) have generated valuable information on the shola forests. Blasco (1971) made a phytogeographic analysis of the grassland-forest continuum along the hill tops of the Western Ghats. The next significant post-independent contribution on shola forests appeared as fragmented treatments. Chandrasekharan (I962 d) while attempting a classification of the forest types of Kerala provided some description of shola forests. Puri et al (1989) have provided a recent review of the ecological studies on the shola forests. Apart from these studies, the only recent phytosociological study on the shola forests of Kerala is by Jose et al (l994). 86

93 4.3 Materials and Methods Area of Study: Most of the community ecological studies were conducted at two specific locations: (i). The Mannavan shola, and (ii). The Eravikulam National Park, the former abounding in the subtropical hill forest component of the shola forests and the latter with innumerable montane forest patches. The above areas were selected for location specific studies for two specific reasons. The Mannavan shola provides, a continuous elevational gradient starting from 1,500 m onwards to 2,100 m above asl. The poor representation of montane wet temperate forests in the upper reaches of the Mannavan Shola is compensated by including the Eravikulam National Park, which is a refugium for patchy montane forest vegetation. The physiographic, climatic, habitational and other details of the study areas are given in Chapter Plant life forms studied: While in floristic studies, the plants studied included all tracheophytes (ie, Pteridophytes and Angiosperms, as Gymnosperms were not encountered in the study area), the community ecological studies were largely confined to trees, except in specific instances of study. For consideration of a plant as a tree, the minimum height of 3 m was taken as the criterion, thus ascribing to a more 'arborescent' concept of tree definition. For many purposes, individuals 1 cm dbh (at 137 cm height) of all species which generally grow to a height 3 m, were enumerated and measured for population estimations. A further narrowing down of the scope of study was made by restricting enumeration and measurements to individuals 10 cm dbh, either to reduce the work load or to draw up a picture at in differing spatial magnitudes. Herbaceous and shrubby plants were included only in selected components Sample size: In the community ecological studies, two different kinds of samples were used: (i) some semi-permanent samples of 0.25 ha in size, and (ii) several releves, each measuring 0.1 ha and comprising of ten discontinuous 0.01 (10 m x 10 m) ha samples Semi-permanent plots of 0.25 ha size: Phytosociological studies are generally done in releves, the minimum sample size required for community ecological studies, determined through estimation of species-area relations. Releves generally provide only gross pictures of the vegetation and therefore for finer information especially relating to ecosystems, study of large-scale permanent plots and their longterm monitoring are being increasingly used (Sukumar and Sukumar, 1992). Six 0.25 ha (50 m x 50 m) sample plots were established, in the Eravikulam National Park and Mannavan Shola. The location of each semi-permanent plot were selected such that, each of them falls in a different elevational belt, and some of them represent disturbed sholas. Locational details of the semi-permanent plots are given in table 4.1. The 50 m x 50 m plots were divided into twenty five 100 m 2 (10 m x 10 m) quadrats. Studies were restricted to tree species alone. Trees 10 cm dbh, 1 cm dbh and < 10 cm dbh, and all regeneration less than 1 cm dbh were enumerated in all the 25 quadrats in the sample plots Releves of 0.1 ha comprising 10 discontinuous quadrats: In addition to the studies on permanent plots, conventional phytosociological studies were also conducted in releves, in order to understand the distribution of measures of dominance, association, etc. Trees 10 cm dbh were measured and enumerated in quadrats of 10 m by 10 m (100 m 2 ) size in four elevational belts falling between the elevational belts of the semi-permanent plots (Table 4.2). 87

94 Table 4.1. Locations of semi-permanent plots and releves studied No Locations Altitude (m) Comments Area Enumeration Kalippettumala 1,700 Burnt stand 0.25 ha Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola Kanthallur-4 1,750 Forest ecotone 0.25 ha Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola Kanthallur-5 1,850 Undisturbed 0.25 ha Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola Kanthallur-6.5 1,950 Undisturbed 0.25 ha Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola Nilagiri Teri 1,950 Undisturbed 0.25 ha Stems 1 cm dbh Eravikulam (Fig. 4.1) V-point 2,100 Undisturbed 0.25 ha Stems 1 cm dbh Eravikulam (Fig. 4.2) Data from these releves were supplemented with data from ten 100 m 2 quadrats randomly selected from the permanent plots so that, altogether there were 10 elevational data available for phytosociological interpretations. Table 4.2 Locations of 0.1 ha releves studied in the shola forests Mannavan Shola Ecological parameters studied: The data obtained from bemi-permanent plots and releve samples were analyzed for understanding species-area relations in the vegetation type, the pattern of life spectrum distribution, distribution of tree life-forms, diversity, species associations, different measures of dominance such as density, basal area, importance, values and regeneration dynamics. 88

95 Figure 4.1 & 4.2 Photographs of two semi-pennanent plots established for the present study. Fig. 4.1 An outside view of the shola forest in which the semipennanent plot 'Nilagiri Teri' is established. Fig. 4.2 A view of the eastern aspect of the Umayamalai in Eravikulam NP. The semi-pennanent plot 'V-Point' lies on the western aspect of this ridge. 89

96 Typology: The enumeration data on trees 10 cm dbh from the semi-permanent plots were randomly selected and pooled together with the releve data gathered from elevational belts in between that of the semi-permanent plots. The data were assembled into a synthesis table Species-area relations: The species-area relation was studied from 0.25 ha semipermanent plots, starting 100 m 2 (10 m x 10 m) as the initial quadrat size. Expanding quadrat method\nested plot techniques were used in the study Life form spectrum: The plants encountered in the samples were classified into three life forms, viz, herbs, shrubs, and trees. No classification of the herbs into cryptophytes, geophytes, etc were done. Analysis of data for the life-form spectra was conducted only of the data obtained from the semi-permanent plots of 0.25 ha size Relationship between tree size and elevation: The enumeration data from the semipermanent plots and releves were pooled so as to describe population properties of tree diameter. The trends in diameter distribution were examined at the ecosystem level as well as at individual tree species level Measures of diversity: The different. measures of diversity studied are given in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 The different measures of diversity studied Species richness Number of stems of species i in the sample Total number of stems of all species encountered in the sample area Parameters I Formula/ method [S] [ni] [N] number of spp. encountered in the sample counts S Sum ni i= I Mean number of stems per species in the sample area Shannon s index of diversity (Shannon and Weiner, 1949) Pielou s index of evenness (Pielou, 1975) Simpson s index of dominance (Simpson, 1975) [N/S] [H] [E] [D] N/S S [log10 N-(l/N) Sum n, logl0 ni] i= 1 H /Hmax (where Hmax = log 2 S) S 1- Sum (ni/n) 2 i= 1 *- factor for conversion from log 2 to log l0 Many of the aspects mentioned in the above table are discussed in separate headings in the section: Results and Discussion 90

97 Measures of Dominance: Various measures of dominance such as density, frequency and basal area were computed for each species in the releves and importance value calculated following the conventional phytosociological computations as defined in Table 4.4 so as to arrive at meaningful sociological interpretations. Table 4.4 The various dominance parameters studied # Parameters Formula Terms Density of species i [n(i)] n Sum i i= I i = each replicate individual of the species i Relative Density [RD] n(i) x 100/N S N = Sum n(i); S = number of species i= 1 q(i) x l00/q q(i) = number of squares in which species (i) was present; q = the total number of squares studied Relative frequency [RF] f(i) x l00/f S F = Sum f(i) i= 1 BAn(i) = c 2 /4 pi pi = 3.14 c = circumference at 1.37 m above the ground Relative Basal Area [RBA] BA(i) x 100 Percentile Basal Area S Sum BA(i) i= 1 Importance Value Index [IVI] RD + RF + RBA Out of 300 Relative Importance Value Index [RIVI] IVI/3 out of 100 #Adapted from: (1). Mueller Domhois and Ellenherg (1974), and (2). Pascal (1988) 4.4 Results and discussion Typology The result of analysis of species compositions are given in Appendix-I and summarized in Table Classification of species according to constancy percentages is given in Table

98 Table 4.5 Classification of species according to constancy percentage Constancy percent 2 10% and < 70% 2 70% and < 100% 38 S # - Number of species Table 4.6 Classification of species according to constancy [data of 12 releves, each of 0.1 ha] I Constancy class 1 Species list # Species with 100 % constancv Species with constancy 70% and < 100% Species with constancy 10% and < 70% (Selected most constant species in the class) 1. Cinnamomum wightii 1. Litsea sp. 2. Elaeocarpus munronii 3. Gomphandra coriacea 1. Hydnocarpus alpina 12. Canthium dicoccum 2. Isonandra candolleana 13. Syzygium arnottiana Acronychia laurifolia 4. Lasianthus acuminatus 5. Schefflera racemosa 6. Syzygium sp. [pilla njaval] 7. Chionanthus macrocarpa 8. Ternstroemia japonica 9. Turpinia nepalensis 10. Actinodaphne bourdillonii 11. Bhesa indica 4. Persea macrantha 5. Saprosma foetens 15. Celtis wightii 16. Syzygium sp. 17. Glochidion neilgherrense 18. Isonandra sp. [vella pala] 19. Daphniphyllum neilgherrense 20. Ficus sp. 21. Ilex denticulata 22. Meliosma simplicifolia Taken only trees 10 cm dbh into consideration, in all the 12 releves studied (including sample from the semi-permanent plots) a single species, Cinnamomum wightii, showed hundred percent constancy, as derived from the synthesis table. The community therefore qualifies to be called Cinnamomum wightii community (Tables 4.5 & 4.6). Another 5 species showed constancy between 70 and 100 while there were as many as 42 species sharing a constancy rank between 10 and 70%. The category of less frequent species represented by less than 10% in the releves included 38 species thus substantiating high diversity (Table 4.6) Life form spectrum The observed relations between the different life forms in the semi-permanent plots (0.25 ha) are given in table 4.7 and part of it represented in Figures 4.3 and

99 Table 4.7 Life form composition with elevation Elevation (m asl) Life form relations I S (shrubs) < S (trees) I 1,950 I S (trees) < S (herbs) I 2,100 I S (trees) > S (herbs) I 1, Tree species: There is appreciable reduction in the number of tree species with ascending elevation from 1,850 m as1 onwards. This is probably because of the temperate-like climate above 1,800 m as1 (Table 4.7; Figs. 4.3 & 4.4) Shrubs plus herbs: The aggregate figure for number of species of herbs and/or shrubs always outnumbered the number of tree species at all undisturbed shola forest sites. However, this aggregate figure was higher in the forest-grassland ecotone (82 spp.) and fire burnt plots (60 spp), compared to that in undisturbed plots (56 spp.) (Table 4.7; Figs. 4.3 & 4.4) Shrub species: From 1850 to 2,100 m asl, there was no appreciable increase in the number of shrubby species. The number of shrub species was always found to be less than the aggregate figure for tree and/or herb species. However the attribute showed variations; at 1950 m as1 shrub species were fewer than tree species whereas at 2,100 m asl, the shrub species outnumbered the tree species. The number of shrub species was very low in the forest-grassland ecotone plot (9 spp.) and burnt shola plot (6 spp.), compared to the undisturbed plots ±18 spp.) (Table 4.7; Figs. 4.3 & 4.4) Herbs: Throughout the elevational range, no appreciable increase in the number of species of herbs was observed. The number of herbaceous species was high in a grassland ecotone (73 spp) and the burnt plot (54 spp.), compared to that of the undisturbed plots (±39 spp.). As in evergreen and moist deciduous forests, the herbaceous forms have a definitive pioneer role here too (Figs. 4.3 & 4.4) Relationship between tree diameter and elevation At the all species level: Tree diameter distribution with respect to elevation is presented in Table 4.8. Of 1,186 trees measured in the shola forests, the highest diameter measured was cm at about 1,800 m asl. At 1,600 m as1 the maximum tree diameter was cm dbh. From 1,850 m as1 onwards there was a gradual reduction in the maximum dbh of trees (cf. Table 4.8, Fig. 4.5) and at 2,100 m asl, the maximum diameter recorded was only 72.5 cm. Although the maximum tree diameter decreased with ascending elevation (Fig. 4.5), the mean tree diameter however displayed a more or less normal distribution pattern (Fig. 4.6). 93

100 From 1,600 m as1 onwards, the mean tree diameter (31.4 cm dbh) began increasing to reach a maximum mean measure of 41.7 cm dbh at 1,900 m asl. Then onwards the trend was one of decreasing, to attain a mean minimum of 24.7 and 19.9 cm at 2,100 m asl (Fig. 4.6, Table 4.8). The variability of mean diameter as reflected in standard deviation was least for the m as1 (14.8 and 11.4; cf. Table 4.8). Table 4.8 Diameter distribution of trees at different altitudinal zones of the shola forests #Minimum tree diameter is assumed as 10 cm dbh * Number of trees studied in each location The plot Kalippettumala (1,700 m asl) was successionally young having been subject to burning a few years back and therefore the measurements could not be used for any comparison in the context of elevation. Likewise, the plot Kanthallur-4 (1,750 m asl) was a forest-grassland ecotone and also at a successionally younger age At individual tree species level: In computing the diameter statistics of individual species, several patterns were observed: Pattern I. Mean diameter with increasing elevation. Eg. Cinnamomum wightii, Hydnocarpris alpina and Meliosma simplicifolia (Table 4.9) Pattern 2. Mean diameter increased with increasing elevation. Eg. Isonandra candolleana, Rhododendron nilagiricum, Litsea sp., etc (Table 4.10) Pattern 3. Mean diameter decreasing with both increasing and decreasing elevation Eg. Chionanthus macrocarpa, Mastixia arborea, etc (Table 4. I I). Pattern 4. No significant difference in mean diameter across elevational gradient. Eg. Gomphandra coriacea, Persea macranrha and Turpinia nepalensis (Table 4.12) 94

101 Species area curve: shola forests * 502 Area [m2] Area [m2] Figures 4.3 & 4.4 Compartmented species area curves for different life forms in two semi-permanent plots, representing two elevational belts. The essential difference between the graphs is that in figure 4.3 the number of tree species are almost always greater than the number of herb species at 1,950 m, whereas it is reversed at m asl. 95

102 ~ E 0 L E m 5 200, 50 - Diameter variability across elevation: Shola forests I : : Trees >= 10 cm dbh [n = 1186 trees] Altitude [m msl] Figures 4.5 & 4.6 Tree diameter variability across elevational gradient in the shola forests. Only trees 10 cm dbh done were considered for these graphs. The general relationship is one of decreasing tree diameter with ascent in elevation (Fig. 4.5). Invariably in disturbed sites (Fig. 4.6: m and 1,700 m), the mean tree diameter is low. But from 1,900 in asl onwards, there is a definite decline in mean tree diameter (Fig. 4.6). 96

103 , Table 4.9 Diameter statistics of different shola tree species with an apparent reduction in diameter with increasing elevation I 1 Diameter Max ZIter, SD n# Max Mean I Cinnamomrtm wiphrii I Lirsea ligusrrina I I Hvdnocaruus aldiriin 67.8 : ;(j:l I Losianrhus ncumirratiis I 17.4 I I 16.5 I I 14.6 I ' I 1 I 2 I Lauraceae : ~rvotocarva [ n' : Population size : I I I 2000 I 51.2 I 25.7 I I 24.5 I Table 4.10 Diameter statistics of different shola tree species where increase in diameter with elevation apparent Diameter Isonandra candolleana 1900 I 71 I I I 62.7 I 39.9 I 12 I 20 Rhododendron nilagiricum I I 29 I 21.6 I 7.6 I I I n' : Population size 91

104 Table Diameter statistics of different shola tree species where a unimodal curve of mean diameter plots apparent Diameter Mean Chionanthus macrocarpa n # : Population size The above patterns of mean diameter variations partially reflect the habitat range of the species, the history of local succession or micro-level phytogeography and the local stand structure. The highest maximum tree diameter encountered for any given individual was cm dbh, at an elevation of 1,800 m as1 for Syzygium arnottianum (Tables 4.13). Out of the 10 releves considered for this parameter, in 5 instances the largest trees (in diameter) were of Syzygium species. Of the rest, in three instances the largest trees were of Cinnamomum wightii, Elaeocarpus munronii, and Mastixia arborea (Table 4.13). The elevational range of the genus Syzygium, represented by five species, extends between to 2,000 m asl. It is probable that each species of the genus has an elevational preference and that the elevational delineation might provide a reasonably sound subcategorization of the shola forests Species-area relations Table 4.14 and Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.7 and 4.8 summarize the results. For herbs. shrubs. herbs plus shrubs, and forest-grassland ecotone areas. a releve size of 400 m 2 was found satisfactory In burnt shola forests where secondary succession was in vogue, the releve size reduced to 200 m 2. For studying trees 1 cm dbh, in undisturbed shola forests a releve size of 600 m 2 was found necessary, while it was around 1,000 m 2 ( 0.1 ha) for studying trees 10 cm dbh. 98

105 Table 4.12 Diameter statistics of different shola tree species where no difference in mean diameter apparent Diameter Diameter Symplocos cochinchinensis Turpinia nepalensis * nu : Population size Table 4.13 Instances of maximum tree dbh records in stands 99

106 Table 4.14 Releve sizes for various life forms in the shola forests No. Life forms Quadrat size Releve size I Herbs 20mx20m 400m 2 Shrubs 20 m x 20 m 400 m 2 Trees 1 cm (a). Forest ecotone area 20 m x 20 m 400 m 2 (b). Burnt secondary succession area 20 m x 10 m 200 m 2 (c). Undisturbed area 30 m x 20 m 600 m 2 Trees 10 cm dbh # 30mx30m 900m 2 (=0.l ha) Herbs + shrubs 20 m x 20 m 400 m 2 Herbs + shrubs + trees 10 cm dbh 30mx30m 900m 2 (=0.l Fig. 4.7; #Fig Species richness At all species level: The total number of species, (ie, irrespective of life form categories such as herbs, shrubs or trees, etc) in the 0.25 ha semi-permanent plots decreased from 1,850 m as1 onwards (94 spp.), as the elevation ascended further up (2,100 m: 84 spp.). In the forestgrassland ecotone however, the species number (1750 m asl: 112 spp.), was much higher compared to the maximum number of species observed in undisturbed plots (1850 m asl: 94 spp.). The above statistic is given merely to give a general picture of the species abundance patterns against which the differentiated figures of different life forms are to be considered (Figs. 4.7 & 4.8) At 1 cm dbh level: Details of this statistic are given in table Table 4.15 Species richness of trees 1 cm dbh in 0.25 ha samples Location Alt. (m) S Kanthallur Kanthallur Nilagiri Teri Location Kalippettumala #. Kanthalllur-4 $ 1750 # Burnt site; $ Forest-grassland ecotone At 1 cm dbh level, the highest number of species observed was 55 species ha at an elevation of 1950 m asl. As the elevation goes up from 1950 to 2,100 m asl. a reduction in species number is observed (1950 m asl: 55 spp; 2,100 m: 41 spp.; cf. Table 4.15). The grassland ecotone stand also has shown high species number (51 spp.), indicating high successional activities. Number of species 1 cm dbh showed a maximum at about 1,950 m asl but then reduced sharply at about 2,100 m as1 (Table 4.15; Figure 4.9). This observation suggests that tree is not I00

107 ~ Species area curve: Shola forest 40 Permanent plots: stems >= 10 cm dbh Area in m2-1850m f1750m *1950m *1700m *1950m '2100m I I Figures 4.7 & 4.8 Species area curves for plants >= 1 cm dbh and >= I0 cm dbh in semi-permanent plots distributed across different elevations. For both the size classes the curves stabilize at about 1000 m 2 or so. In Fig. 4.8 for the elevations 1,700 m and 1,750 m. the curve has stabilized at about 200 m 2 itself. One of these plots (1,700 m) is a burnt forest stand, whereas the other (1,750 m) is a forest-grassland ecotone. The reduction of tree species in both of these plots is reflected in the graph. 101

108 Species richness: Shola forest, 60 >= 1 an dbh [in 0.25 ha SampleS] I + - I Ecotone + m.g rn m P Burnt/ z lo I >= 10 cm dbh [in 0.1 ha sampissl ' Altitude [m msl] Figure 4.9 Patterns of species richness in shola forests across the altitudinal gradient. At 1 cm dbh level, the curve is unimodal with the number of species increasing up to about 1,950 m asl. At 10 cm dbh level, there is a slight increase in species richness from 1,600 to 1,800 m asl, but then onwards, the trend remains indeterminate. 102

109 the characteristic of life form at elevations beyond 1,950 m asl. It would also subscribe to Ranganathan's (1938) view that the grasslands of South Indian hill stations represent the climax. Yet Ranganathan's view may not be tenable as the stunted tree life forms do colonize the elevational belt as patchy shola forests (Swarupanandan et al., 1998). although they represent a minority, and the size range of trees is less, compared to that of lower elevations. In the grassland ecotone plot, where active secondary succession was taking place, the number of species with stems 1 cm dbh has been found to be fairly high (51 spp.), indicating the pioneer status. So was the case with the fire bumt plot, with 48 species 1 cm dbh. Disturbances like fire, landslides, etc, definitely affects species diversity. When such disturbances take place, the arborescent species, which retain higher quantity of living biomass, are best affected and the reduction in their number is experienced in the beginning; but sooner, with the onset of secondary succession, the number of species tend to increase and later stabilize, as the stand attains optimum development At 10 cm dbh level: Table 4.16 gives the values for different elevational belts. Table 4.16 Species richness of trees 10 cm dbh in 0.1 ha samples #Burnt stand; $: Ecotone. The maximum number of species encountered in 0.1 ha samples with a diam. 10 cm at breast height was 31 and the lowest value was 16. In the burnt plot and the grassland ecotone plot, the species number were extremely low (Burnt plot: 4 spp; Ecotone plot: 2 spp.) Density At all tree species level: The data from releves and semi-permanent plots were segmented for density distribution at various size levels (Table 4.17; Figs to 4.12) Density of stems 1 cm dbh in 0.25 ha semi-permanent plots: Across the elevational gradient, there is not much of an observable trend in the number of stems 1 cm dbh in 0.25 ha, except that in some plots, because of the gregarious occurrence of one or two species like the reed-bamboo, Sinarundinaria densifolia or the substorey shrub, Strobilanthes species, such as S. homotropa, S. luridus, etc. The extreme values observed per hectare ranged between 11,700 and (=12,000 to 27,000 ha-1) In the burnt plot the number of stems was extremely low (=6,360 ha-1) while in the forest-grassland ecotone plot, the density (=12,930 ha-1) was more or less comparable to that of the other plots (Table 4.17; Fig. 4.10). 103

110 Table 4.17 Density in semi-permanent plots (0.25 ha) No. Locations figures rounded off to tens #: Bumt stand; $: Ecotone Density of stems 10 cm dbh in 0.1 ha releves: A maximum of 118 trees 10 cm dbh was measured in 0.1 ha at about 1,700 m asl. From this maximum, the values oscillated between the minimum of 51 trees ha-1. There is no general trend in the number of trees 10 cm dbh across the elevational gradient, except that at very high elevations there is marked reduction of number of stems (Fig. 4.11) Density of trees 10 cm dbh in 100 m2 quadrats (Micro-level density variabilities): Statistical details of tree ( 10 cm dbh) number variability in 100 m 2 (ha ) quadrats across elevational belts is detailed in Table 4.18 and Figure Table Statistic of micro-level (in 100 m 2 quadrats) tree ( 10 cm dbh) density variability across elevational belts Altitudinal belt n* number of 100 m 2 quadrats studied The total range of tree density in 0.01 ha (100 m 2 ) quadrats was between 2 and 22. Over 70% of the 100 m 2 quadrats fell in the 4-10 tree frequency class. At elevation between 1, m asl, ca. 70% of the 100 m 2 quadrats sampled belonged to the frequency classes 7-12 trees, the modal quadrat being with 9 trees ha and the median class with 8 trees ha In the elevational range 1,800-2,000 m asl, > 70% (800) quadrats of the 0.01 quadrats sampled belonged to the frequency class 3-9 trees, the modal class quadrat being those with 6 trees ha the median quadrat class being those with 9 trees ha At the elevation regime 2, m asl, 72% of the quadrats belonged to the frequency class

111 Density variability: shola forest....., l l Alltitude [m msl] W l Alltitude [m msl] Density variability in 100 m2 samples Figures Density variability in shola forests. At 1 cm dbh level, the number of individuals in samples increases with every ascent in altitude (Fig. 4.10). Figure 4.11 also displays a similar trend for trees 10 cm dbh, but here the slope of the curve is slightly gentle than for the size class 1 cm dbh. Figure graphs of tree density variability in microsamples (100 m2). The figure suggests that stocking of trees is best in the elevational belt 1,800-2,000 m asl. 105

112 trees; the modal class was with 11 trees ha and the median one with 8 trees ha The reduction in the number of trees in the elevational belt 1,800-2,000 m as1 is striking. The median tree frequency class quadrat for the whole ecosystem was 5 trees ha -0.01, and the modal class quadrats were also quite close, 5 trees ha and 6 trees ha The elevational belt 1,600-1,800 m also displayed such a relation between the modal tree frequency class quadrat (8 trees ha ) and the median tree frequency quadrat (9 trees ha ). However, this was not so in the case of the elevational belts 1,800-2,000 m and 2,000-2,100 m as1 and in the burnt plot (cf. Table 4.18). This shows that the modal tree frequency class quadrat is a better measure of tree density than the median tree frequency class quadrat Mean number of stems per species (N/S) The mean number of individuals 1 cm dbh in 0.25 ha samples ranged between 47 and 171 (Table 4.18), the higher values being that of plots where some gregarious species such as reed bamboo and Strobilanthes species existed. When trees 10 cm dbh in 0.1 ha sample plots were compared, the values ranged between 2 and 4.4. Again no trend could be observed across the elevational gradient. Compared to the undisturbed plots, the mean number of stems per species 10 cm dbh in 0.1 ha in the disturbed plots, the values were very high, owing to the fewer number of species (bum plot: 28 trees ha -0.1 ; ecotone grassland plot: 27 trees ha -0.1 ). However, this difference was not so prominent at 1 cm dbh level in 0.25 ha samples; owing to the fact that succession is very active there. Table 4.19 Mean number of stems per species in different dbh levels DBH: 1 cm dbh; Sample: 0.25 ha Location IKanthallur I 51 I 2397 I 47 I V-point Kalimettumala# 1700 I 37 I 1372 I 37 1 Kanthallur-4$ 1750 I I 49 1 * - Figures rounded off to whole number # - Burnt stand; $ - Ecotone. I DBH: 1 cm dbh: Sample: 0.25 ha I Location Kanthallur-3 Kan t h a1 lur-6 IKanthallur-6.5 INilagiri Teri V-uoint I I 3 I I 27 I 166 I 6 I 2000 I 28 I I lkaliuuetturnala # IKanthallur-4' 1750 I Diversity indices Out of a whole variety of diversity indices, four have been computed and interpreted: (1). Shannon's index (H'), (2) Simpson's index (D, Lambda), (3). H max,, and (4). Pielou's index of evenness (E). 106

113 Shannon-Weinner's index of diversity (H'): The Shannon's index is a general index of diversity which takes into account the species richness component and the variability of density within each species, and is the most popular among the variety of indices of diversity. Shannon's index is only moderate in the undisturbed stands at 1 cm dbh level (in 0.25 ha stands) and again shows a definite elevational trend decreasing with increasing altitudes (Table 4.19). Compared to the higher values recorded for evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (> 3.5: cf. Pascal, 1988) the shola forests showed only lower values (±1.5 or around 2) and in this respect was found closer to the moist deciduous forests (±2.8). However, at 10 cm dbh level, in 0.1 ha sample stands, the Shannon's index was fairly high ranging between 2.5 and 3.4. Table 4.20 Shannon' index at different dbh levels Location Kanthallurd Kanthallur-6.5 Nilagiri Teri V-point Kalippettumala# Kanthallur-4$ Alt. (m) H # - Burnt stand: - Ecotone Table 4.21 Simpson's index at different dbh levels Location Alt.(m) Kanthallur Kanthallur Nilagiri Teri 1950 V-point 2100 Kalippettumala# 1700 Kanthallur-4$ 1750 D DBH: 10 cm; Sample: 0.1 ha Location Thalachorkadavu Kanthallur Kanthallur-4 I 1800 I 0.93 Kanthallur I

114 Simpson's index of dominance (Lambda): Simpson's index of dominance is a percentile (probability) measure ranging between 0 and 1; where dominance by fewer species exists, the index showed higher values and where there is not much dominance, vice versa. At 1 cm dbh level in 0.25 ha plots, Simpson's index registered high variability of values ranging between 0.42 and 0.70 (Table 4.20). A definite and gradually decreasing trend is observed in the values across elevational gradient at the 1 cm dbh level, with ascending altitudes. In disturbed plots, the index shows high values (burnt plot: 0.84: grassland ecotone plot: 0.82), showing high dominance by fewer number of species. At 10 cm dbh level, however, the Simpson's index shows higher values ranging between 0.81 and 0.95 in the undisturbed plots showing low dominance and low values in disturbed plots (burnt plot: 0.38: grassland ecotone stand: 0.18), and exhibiting co-dominance of plant species. At this size level, no elevational trend could be detected H max : Measures of this parameter are given in table below (Table 4.21) Table 4.22 H max at different dhh levels x - Burnt stand: $- Ecotone Pielou's index of evenness (E): At 1 cm dbh level in 0.25 ha samples, the index of evenness showed very low values (all values were below 50%), the actual values ranging between 0.28 and 0.44 in the undisturbed stands (Table 4.22). The low values of evenness infer the existence of a large number of rare species, ie, species represented by fewer individuals. In the burnt plot and the grassland ecotone stand (disturbed stands), the indices were high. At 10 cm dbh level in 0.1 ha releves, the index showed high degree of evenness (0.85 to 0.96) indicating that there are not many species in this size class Basal area The variability of basal area per hectare across the elevational gradient is given in Table Here again, up to I950 m asl, the basal area is fairly high with a mean of ± 11.5 m2 ha-1;

115 further up, it reduces drastically to an average of 5.6 m 2. Even within the elevational belt 1,600-1,950 m asl, the basal area showed variability, ranging between s 7 m 2 ha -1 and 16.2 m 2 ha -1 (Table 4.23). This indicates difference in stand history of the sites and or difference in species composition. Details of basal area of individual species in the plots are given in tables in Appendix-1. Table 4.23 Pielou's index of evenness at different dbh levels ' - Burnt stand; * - Ecotone Table 4.24 Number of species, density and basal area across elevational belts in 12 releves (0.1 ha) BA: Basal area; D: Density; S: Number of species. # - Burnt stand; * - Forest-Grassland ecotone 109

116 Importance Value and Overall Dominance The number of dominant species (with RIVI 5%) across the 12 releves varied from 6 to 17. In parallel with the reduction with the basal area, a decrease in the density of trees 10 cm dbh is observed with higher elevations, ie, from 1950 m as1 onwards. Parameters such as relative density, relative frequency, and relative basal area and relative importance value of the dominant species did not show much variability across altitude (Table 4.24), except in one releve. Table 4.25 Descriptive statistics of phytosocioiogical parameters of dominant species (RIVI > 5%) in releves (0.1 ha) BA: Basal area; D: Density; RBA: Relative basal area; RD: Relative density; RF Relative frequency; RIVI: Relative importance value (= IVI/3); S: Number of species x - Burnt stand: - Forest-grassland Ecotone Statistic of variability of sociological parameters of the less frequent species in the releves is given in Table The list of dominant tree species 10 cm dbh in the 12 releves is given in Table A scan through the table shows that Meliosma simplicifolia, a dominant species in the releves at 1,600 and 1,700 m as1 releves, does not appear in the releves of higher latitudes. Likewise, Persea macrantha, which also appears to be a dominant species at the lower elevations disappear from the list from 1,900 m as1 onwards. From 1,700 onwards to 1,950 m asl, a species of Litsea shows dominance status, but however, this species does not have the same status from 1,950 m upwards. From 1,600 m as1 onwards, several species of Syzygium are present in the dominance list, in most of the releves. The elevational limits of each of the species are yet to be ascertained, which of course might be very useful in further classification of the vegetation. Other species of more common occurrence across the releves are Turpinia nepalensis, Gomphandru coriucea, Mastixia arborea, Isonandra candolleana, Chionanthus macrocarpa, etc. 110

117 Table Descriptive statistics of dominance parameters of less frequent species (RIVI c 5%) in releves (0.1 ha) BA: Basal area; D: Density; RBA: Relative basal area; RD: Relative density; RF: Relative frequency; RIVI: Relative importance value (= IVI/3); S: Number of species # - Burnt stand; $- Forest-grassland Ecotone Isonandra candolleana and Hydnocarpus alpina were the most dominant species. These species are otherwise highly dominant at 1,950 to 2,100 m as1 across the stands. In two disturbed stands (one burnt stand and the other, a grassland-shola ecotone) these species have again become very highly dominant. This observation suggests that perhaps higher elevations above 1,950 m asl are also disturbed habitats, in the sense that the climate is very hostile for plant life. Table List of dominant tree ( 10 cm dbh) species (with RIVI 5%) in releves (0.1 ha) across the elevational gradient (1,600 to 1,800 m asl) 111

118 Table 4.27 continued 4. Kanthallur-5 (1850 m) 5. Kanthallur-6 (1900 m) 6. Kanthallur-6.5 (1950 m) Hydnocarpus alpina Isonandra candolleana Svzygium sp. [pilla njaval] Gomphandra coriacea Litsea sp. Persea macrantha Unidentified sp. (Hacoc) Mastixia arborea Cinnamomum wightii Mastixia arborea Svzvgium densiflorum Gomphandra coriacea lsonandra candolleana Chionanthus macrocarpa Celtis wightii Mastixia arborea Turpinia nepalensis Chionanthus macrocarpa Gomphandra coriacea Syzvgium sp. [pilla njaval] Litsea ligustrina Phoebe sp. Syzygium arnottianum Litsea sp. I Photinia notoniana 1 Syzygium sp. [potti njaval] 1 Olea dioica I Table 4.27 continued 7. Kanthallur-6.5 (I 950 m) Hydnocarpus alpina Isonandra candolleana Gomphandra coriacea Syzygium sp. [pilla njaval] Isonandra sp. [vella pala] 8. Nilagiri teri (1950 m) 9. Kanthallur-9.5 (2000 m) Hydnocarpus alpina Rhododendron nilagiricum Isonandra candolleana Elaeocarpus recurvatus Syzygium sp. (pilla njaval) Gomphandra coriacea Turpinia nepalensis Syzygium sp. Persea macranrha Cinnamomum wightii Ternstroemia japonica Litsea sp. Vaccinium leschenaultii Table 4.27 continued 10. V-point (2100 m) Isonandra candolleana Hvdnocarpus alpina Syzygium sp. [pilla njaval] Elaeocarpus mrmronii Gomphandra coriacea Saprosma foetens Cinnamomum wightii Persea macrantha 11. Kalippettumala (1700 m) 12. Kanthallur-4 (1750 m) [Burnt stand] [Ecotone] Isonandra candolleana Isonandra candolleana Hydnocarpris alpina Hydnocarpus alpina Syzygium sp. [pilla njaval] Gomphandra coriacea Persea macrantha Svzygium sp. [pilla njaval] Elaeocarpus munronii lsonandra sp. [vella pala] Gomphandra coriacea Litsea sp. Saprosma foetens Cinnamomum wightii For purpose of comparison, phytosociological parametres of the 12 releves (0.1 ha) studied are given in Appendix

119 4.5 Conclusions I The compositional type of the shola forest vegetation is of the Cinnamomum wightii type, as this species is 100 percent constant in all the stands between 1,600-2,100 m asl. The generalization that the number of tree species is less than the aggregate figure for the rest of plant forms, holds true for the shola forests too. Mean and maximum diameter of tree species decrease with increasing elevation in the shola forests. This is more or less linked with the climate and the related physiological limitations of the plants. Certain tree species showed a decreasing trend of diameter with ascending elevation; others showed an increase in diameter, while yet others no increasing or decreasing trend. These patterns reflect the distributional specificity of the species. Species diversity of plants lcm dbh is highest at 1,950 m as1 or so, from when onwards it decreases. Such a trend however is not observed for species growing 10 cm dhh. The per hectare density of trees 10 cm dbh in the shola forests is comparable to that of the evergreen forests. Although the density increases with elevation, the basal area decreases, indicating a reduction in tree size with elevation. Shannon's index of diversity for the shola forests is only comparable to that of moist deciduous or semi-evergreen forests and never reaches closer to that of evergreen forests. Within the shola forests it is highest at 1,950 m as1 and thereafter it decreases. The dominance spectrum indicated by Simpson's index is highest at lower elevations and least at 2,100 m as1 in the shola forests. Evenness of species populations decreases from 1,850 m asl onwards to further up indicating an increase in rarity (sparseness) of populations with increasing elevation. Six to 17 species constituted the dominant species in various stands of the shola forests studied. Their aggregate relative importance value ranged between 70% and 81%. The less frequent tree species in the stands comprised of 8-19 species, their importance value ranging between 18-30% in the stands. Some of the common dominant tree species in the shola forests are: Hydnocarpus alpina. Mastixia arborea, Gomphandra coriacea. Persea macrantha, Syzygium spp., Isonandra candolleana, species of Litsea, etc. 10. The different species of Syzygium inhabiting at different elevational belts might perhaps he useful for further classification of the vegetation. Elevational ranges of important tree species are to be marked based on field investigations. which again might be useful for further classification as well as from the point of management. I13

120 Chapter 5 REGENERATION ECOLOGY 5.1 Introduction In synecological terms, regeneration, the perpetuation of a forest stand, is a particular case of succession by the same species or species groups. Thus, the main interest with respect to the regeneration in the shola forests was to identify the regeneration patterns and stocking levels based on sample studies. An understanding of the regeneration pattern will help scientific management of the shola forests. 5.2 Materials and methods There exists a certain relationship between size and age of trees and therefore, size structure of populations reflects the age structure. Analysis of population structure provides a very useful tool in understanding the process of sylvigenesis. This method has been used in the evaluation of regeneration status and the regeneration process. The method of study involved analysis of enumeration data obtained from the six 0.25 ha semi-permanent plots established for community ecological studies. The locations of the semipermanent plots are repeated here, for the sake of clarity (Table 5.1). The analysis of the data involved partitioning frequency distribution into a series of size classes. In classifying the enumeration data, 9 size classes or life stages were recognized. They are as described in Table 5.2. Table 5.1 Locations of semi-permanent plots No I Locations Altitude Comments Area Enumeration (m) (ha) Kalippettumala 1,700 Burnt stand 0.25 Stems 1 cmdhh Mannavan Shola Kanthallur-4 1,750 Grassland 0.25 Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola ecotone Kanthallur-5 1,850 Undisturbed 0.25 Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola Kanthallur-6.5 1,950 Undisturbed 0.25 Stems 1 cm dbh Mannavan Shola Nilagiri Teri 1,950 Undisturbed 0.25 Stems I cm dbh Eravikulam V-point 2,100 Undisturbed 0.25 Stems I cm dbh Eravikulam 114

121 The data were processed and interpreted at two levels: (1) for the whole shola forest ecosystem, and (2). for individual species. Population structure of individual species were analyzed only for the four undisturbed plots, while in the plot that has been subject to burning some years back, and the forest-grassland ecotone plot gross population structure alone has been analyzed. Table 5.2 Size classes recognized # - diameter at breast height 5.3 Results Regeneration at the ecosystem level Demographic details of population structure of the tree life form in the different semipermanent plots is given in Table 5.3 and Figures Table 5.3 Population structure of trees (all species) in the semi-permanent plots"' Kalippettumala a Kanthallur-4 b a All figures > 100 rounded off to lens Size of semi-permanent plots = 0.25 ha I15

122 From figures given in the table, the average number of trees 10 cm dbh is 630± 110 ha -1, which IS fairly satisfactory. There is ample representation in each of the size classes. A population of 9,690 ± 5,100 unestablished seedlings (height < 50 cm), 1,710 ±840 established seedlings (height 50 cm and diameter < 1 cm at breast height), 3,910 ± 1,340 saplings (1-10 cm dbh), 300 ±150 poles (10-20 cm dbh), seem to be ample for a total of 630 ± 110 trees 10 cm dbh. The semilogarithmic graphs of population structure (Figs. 5.1 & 5.2) conform to a bimodal one, the highest representation being in the unestablished seedlings (height < 50 cm) and another peak in the sapling stage (1-10 cm dbh). In this sense, the graph practically differs from the generally observed exponential or reverse J-shaped population curve as described by Krebs (1972) and Harper and White (1974). From the table and the figures (Figs. 5.1 & 5.2), an accumulation of large number of individuals in the sapling life stage (1-10 cm dbh class) is observed, compared to the poles and the established seedlings. The excessive representation of individuals in the lowermost size class is a natural phenomenon characteristic of exponential curves. But, higher frequency representation in the sapling stage than that in the neighbouring classes, ie, the established seedlings and poles is an unusual phenomenon. On partitioning the enumeration data for certain species it was found that out of the mean value of 3,910 individuals in the sapling population, 2,655 individuals were contributed by Lasianthus acuminatus and Ardisia rhomboidea, two dominant underwood trees. The balance of only 1,255 individuals were actually contributed by other tree species. Even this number is almost double the number of plants observed in the life stages, established seedlings (510) and poles (300). Further partitioning of data for other underwood species is yet to be done. Nevertheless, it appears that the peak in the sapling stage of the curve appears to be due to the presence of some species which are adapted to the underwood stratum in the canopy and which characteristically remain in a lower dbh class. Species of Strobilanthes such as S. homotropa, S. luridus, Ardisia rhomboidea and Lasianthus acuminatus are examples of such underwood species. If the population of such species are exempted from the data, the population curve for the rest of the tree life forms would certainly follow an reverse-j shaped curve, although not exactly so. Drastic difference in the number of unestablished seedlings is observed in two semipermanent plots sharing an elevational status of 1,950 m asl. One of these plots belongs to Mannavan Shola (Kanthallur-6.5) and has been estimated to have 16,960 unestablished seedlings. The other plot, Nilagiri Teri belongs to the Eravikulam National Park and has recorded but only 3,810 unestablished seedlings. Differences in the population of established seedlings (height > 50 and < 1 cm dbh) is evident; but here, the larger population of established seedlings is observed where the population of unestablished seedlings is low. The differences in sire classes further up is not very much striking. The exact reason for the differences in regeneration population, as explained in the previous paragraph, is not known, but could result from several reasons. (1) Perhaps compositional differences exist in the shola forests depending upon the site, and that this in turn reflect upon I16

123 Population structure of tree stratum 100,ow Size classes m $ 10,ow 5 1,003 c 0 ; a E 3 iw 10 Figures 5.1 & 5.2. Population structure of tree stratum in the shola forests, depicted as semilogarithmic graphs. Fig The average population structure. Fig Population curves for two stands at 1950 m asl, one at Mannavan Shola (Kanthallur-6.5) and the other at Eravikulam (V-Point). All the graphs show an excessive accumulation of individuals in the sapling stage (d10). owing to the characteristic growth forms and limitation of the optimum size of certain underwood species (For details see the text). 117

124 the population structure in the stands. (2). It is equally probable that the sites differ in micro- level disturbances such as tree fall gaps. If that is the case, perhaps the differences could be due to the differing stages of stand development, as in a regeneration complex (Kimmins, 1987) Regeneration in burnt and ecotone plots Table 5.4 summarizes observed frequencies in younger regeneration classes in the six semipermanent plots. Table 5.4 Frequency distribution of plants in young regeneration classes of the semipermanent plots 1,2. No. I Locations Altitude (m) Status h50 hg50 d10 Kanthallur-5 1,850 Undisturbed Kanthallur-6.5 1,950 Undisturbed Nilagiri Teri 1,950 Undisturbed V-point 2,100 Undisturbed 6200 I Mean SD 5. Kalippettumala 1,700 Burnt stand 6. Kanthallur-4 1,750 Ecotone From the Table 5.4, it can be seen that the number of unestablished seedlings (height < 50 cm) is very high in the burnt (22,850) and ecotone (17,550) plots, compared to the undisturbed plots. Although one of the undisturbed plots, Kanthallur-6.5, has a frequency almost equaling that of the ecotone plot (1 1,780), all other plots have low frequencies in this size class. The plot that has been subject to burning years back is in a disturbed state, and hence secondary succession is in vogue there: the forest-grassland ecotone plot is also in a successionally young and hence comparable to that of the burnt plot. The high percentage of unestablished seedlings of arborescent species in both of the plots therefore infers active succession taking place. However, such a pattern is not observed with respect to the established seedlings or saplings Regeneration at individual species level As a result of phytosociological studies conducted, in 12 elevational belts, the tree species were categorized into three: (i). Species with high constancy (>75%), (ii). Species with medium constancy, (iii). Species with low constancy (cf. Chapter 4. Community ecology). In all these categories. two patterns of population structure were observed: (i). species for which all life stages are fairly well represented, and (ii). in which established regeneration is not fairly represented. The variety of species according to population structure are as given in Table 5.5. In addition, individual species also differed in yet other features. Some species were not present in all the sites, while in others, although they were present in all or majority of the plots, different life stages were represented in different plots. This may be due to the elevational specificity of distribution of the species, and the consequent patterns of regeneration. Other

125 species had fair representation in all life stages in one of the plots, while in other plots only one or two life stages were represented. Such patterns of random distribution of life stages across samples could be due to the favourable of specific environmental niche, to which the species is adapted. Table 5.5 Different kinds of tree species according to regeneration patterns Species with a high constancy ( 75%) 1.1 All life stages fairly well represented Eg.: Cinnamomum wightii, Litsea sp., Gomphandra coriacea 1.2 Established regeneration not fairly represented Eg.: Persea macrantha, Saprosma foetans Species of medium constancy 2.1 All life stages fairly well represented Eg.: Symplocos cochinchinensis, Hydnocarpus alpina, Mastixia arborea, Chionanthus macrocarpa, Ternstroemia japonica, Actinodaphne bourdillonii, Canthium dicoccum 2.2 Established regeneration not fairly represented Eg.: Isonandra candolleana, Lasianthus acuminatus, Schefflera racemosa, Turpinia nepalensis, Syzygium densiflorum, Celtis wightii 3. Other species 3.1 Species of high constancy in permanent plots All life stages fairly well represented Eg.: Syzygium sp. (potti njaval) 3.12 Established regeneration not fairly represented Eg.: Ardisia rhomboidea, Ligustrum perrorttetii, Syzygium sp., Daphniphyllum neilgherrense 3.2 Species of low constancy in permanent plots 3.21 All life stages fairly well represented Eg.: Phoebe sp Established regeneration not fairly represented Eg.: Scolopia crenata, Mahonia leschenaultii, Syzygium densiflorum Regeneration patterns of some selected tree species are provided in Appendix Discussion Situations requiring regeneration augmentation: When we examine the life tables of tree populations in the shola forests they were found not deficient in regeneration. Deficiency of regeneration perhaps arises only where shola forest patches have been subject to burning or such other disturbances. In situations otherwise, eucalypt plantations along the High Ranges and elsewhere, have been found to be actively colonized by native shola forest species. Compared to the eucalypt plantations, the shola groves are much more efficient in holding the rain water for a 119

126 longer time, and for this reason, in both these situations regeneration augmentation by planting seedlings of shola species may be useful. The use of stumps (root shoot cuttings) for planting may be experimented with a few dominant shola tree species. Species which are resistant to fire. such as Rhododendron nilagiricum, and those species which are found generally along the margins of shola patches, or pioneer species that establish the nuclei of shola glen formation (see Figures ) along the upstreams such as species of Syzygium need to be given preference for this experimental study. In wildlife preservatories such as the Eravikulam National Park, innumerable tiny montane shola forest patches are sprinkled in the vast landscape of hill top grasslands. having refuged to the little sinusia hidden between the rolling hillocks. A great majority of these glenlets are found to have reed-bamboos within them. The gregarious reed-bamboos with their perennial underground stems are capable of withstanding less intense fire, and therefore they are considered to be indicators of past fire in the groves. Shola patches with a few years fire history with standing burnt tree poles and stumps evidenced by the presence of charcoal on them, are also found to be invaded by reed-bamboos. Thus the shola patches with reed-bamboos in them are probably disclimaxes, produced as a result of tire (refer Figure 5.6). Quantitative assessment of the shola groves invaded by reed-bamboos, the role of fire in advancing the reed growth, the probability of improving the species composition of these groves by augment planting are aspects that deserve further studies. Population ecology and autecology of shola tree species regeneration deserve special attention. Preservation of the wild populations of the Nilgiri tahr, the endangered animal, is the top conservation priority of the Eravikulam National Park. As a matter of fact, the grasslands in the Park are burnt periodically such that any given area receives buming approximately once in every two years or so (Rice, 1984). Perhaps, fire escapes into the shola forests when the grasslands are burnt. Therefore, Fire protection measures should be ensured to the sholas before the grasslands are burnt. 5.5 Conclusions 1. At the ecosystem level, the tree stratum of the shola forest at Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam do not display deficiency of regeneration. 2. Regeneration of most of the tree species is fairly well represented, however several species have deficiency in some life stages. 3. Regeneration augmentation may be necessary only in disturbed shola forests or in eucalypt and other plantations where gradual conversion of the plantations to natural shola forests is desired. 120

127 Figures The pictures show the fonnation stage of shola forests. Along hill top upstreams such developmental stages are observed. This suggests that the high correspondence of shola forest patches to valleys and depressions is largely a matter of soil moisture regimes than wind, temperature or other factors. 121

128 n Grassland Figure 5.6 Successional sequences in grasslands of Kerala (reproduced from Swarupanandan et al., 1998). The diagram shows that many of our shola forest patches are secondary in terms of succession. A greater percentage of the patchy high elevational shola forests have high percentage of reed-bamboos in them. Reed bamboos are generally indicators of fire and suggest the occurrence of repeated fires in the shola forests patches during the past. The patchy shola forests with high percentage of reed-bamboos therefore represent a disclimax, which is depicted in the uppermost circle of the succession chart. I22

129 Chapter 6 SYNTHESIS 6.1 Introduction In the present study on the shola forests of Mannavan Shola and Eravikulam, four aspects are dealt with: (i) floristics, (ii) community ecology and (iii) regeneration ecology. Highlights from each of the study subjects are detailed below. 6.2 Floristic studies The floristic studies identified 543 species of plants (Pteridophytes and Angiosperms together). Nearly one fifth of the taxa (109 spp.) collected are endemic and one fourth of the taxa (128 spp.) are classified as rare, and 26 species belong to the threatened category. Sinarundinaria microphylla, a dwarf bamboo collected Eravikulam National Park is a new record for Peninsular India (Kumar and Kumar, 1997). Fern species such as Elaphoglossum stelligerum and Pleopeltis macrocarpa collected from Mannavan Shola are new record for Kerala (Kumar, 1998). In addition, some specimens of the genera Syzygium, Balanophora, Litsea, Taeniophyllum and a few other genera remains to be identified. These materials in all probability represent new taxa. The geographic extent of the floristic study was restricted to Mannavan Shola (ca. 5 km 2 ) and Eravikulam National Park (90 km 2 ), both falling within the Idukki District of Kerala. The area of the study is only a fraction of the total area occupied by shola forests in Kerala. From this point of view if an exhaustive study of the flora covering all the shola forest areas in the State is conducted, the number of endemics, rarities, and new taxa could be still high. The value of these forests in the context of biodiversity conservation therefore demand serious attention. Selected plant species such as Drosera peltata, Gaultheria fragrantissima, Anaphalis spp., etc. which inhabit successional habitats adjoining shola forests are extracted in large quantities, of which there is no quantified information. Resource economics in terms of such produces, affecting the life of the local people in the area, deserves due attention. 6.3 Ecological studies Bench mark information on the structure, composition, dominance, biodiversity content, population structure of selected tree species in the shola forests etc, have been generated by the present study. Tree regeneration is not much constrained. In order to extract applied value of the generated ecological information, further extension of community ecology so as to identify the existing vegetal mosaics and their soil and stand composition, altitudinal subunits based on the distributional difference of key species such as species of Syzygium, specifics of regeneration dynamics or succession in each of the vegetal mosaics, etc, need to be pursued further. This would also need to involve autecological studies of selected dominant tree species. 6.4 Artificial regeneration of the shola forests The effect of fire on shola forests is reflected best in the patchy montane shola forests. The copiously growing reed-bamboos within the groves are considered the result of past fire invasion. It would be desirable that such patches be enriched with native shola forest species. 123

130 Smaller shola forest patches could be linked through sbola forest corridors. Such attempts would be desirable, both in evolving protected area management strategies, as well as in protecting the head waters and catchments. In all the above situations, augmentation planting and artificial regeneration of shola forests is required. Silviculture of shola forest species, therefore should be a priority in both planning ecosystem development and research along South Indian Hill Stations. 6.5 Possibilities for a Shola Forest Sanctuary The Eravikulam National Park is a living refugium of montane wet temperate sholas, while Mannavan Shola is another living museum of subtropical hill forests and its biota. The numerous patchy montane shola forest glens otherwise preserved by being situated in the Eravikulam National Park, is more or less well protected, except for the risk of occasional fire. The Mannavan Shola is the largest shola forest patch in the State, forming part of the Munnar Forest Division. Long term protection for this majestic vegetal stretch, which contains many botanical rarities and novelties to science, is not ensured. Because both clear felling and selection felling of natural forests in the State remains a closed chapter for the time being, there is no immediate danger of felling the Mannavan Shola and the adjacent larger shola groves in the near future. Yet, a legal protective measure ensuring long term protection of the groves is desirable. In speculating measures to improve the efficacy of protected area networks in the State, Rodgers and Panwar (1988) have suggested establishing a shola forest sanctuary in the High Ranges, adjoining and strengthening the conservation potential of the Eravikulam National Park. The Mannavan Shola together with other larger adjacent shola patches such as Pullaradi Shola, Pambadam Shola and Idivara Shola would be suitable for consideration here. These four shola forest glens are discontinuous being interspersed with tea estates, grasslands and some eucalypt and wattle plantations. With the objective of plantation development, most of the grasslands lying in between have already been planted with eucalypts. Rodgers and Panwar's (1988) suggestion to constitute a shola forest reserve is very valuable when we realize the fact that in many places plantations have been actively colonized by natural shola forest species (Srivastava, 1994). The possibility of linking the three shola forest junks by developing corridors through artificial planting of shola forest species in the grasslands also exists. The seven kilometer long Kanthallur-SP Puram road traverses the Mannavan Shola from bottom to top and connects Marayur-Kanthallur settlements to Kundala. In the interest of protection of the Mannavan Shola and other adjacent larger shola forest patches, it is desirable that the authority of the road be vested with the Forest Department and the existing people's right to transport and motorize it may be given up. 6.6 Proposal for a High Altitude Ecology Chapter in South India The shola forests and the poorly explored flora and fauna, the grasslands, the plantations of tea, eucalypt and wattle, all provide scope for a High Altitude Ecology Chapter in the South. The narrow equilibrium of the mountain ecosystems, the dwindling shola forest cover, increasing rates of disappearance of the grassy landscapes, the vagaries in the high altitude climate, the peculiar cultural development along the High Ranges associated with the tea plantations, all make the suggestion meaningful. 124

131 Appendix-1 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES IN RELEVES Releve # 1: Thalachorkadavu, Mannavan Shola Altitude: 1,600 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha BA - Basal area; D - Density; RBA - Relative basal area; RD - Relative density; RF - Relative frequency; RIVI - Relative importance value (= IVI/3); S - Number of species. Releve #2: Kanthallur-3, Mannavan Shola Altitude: 1,700 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha Contd

132 Releve # 3: Kanthallur-4, Mannavan Shola Altitude: 1,800 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha Releve # 4 Kanthallur-5, Mannavan Shola Altitude: 1,850 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha Species 13 species with RIVI < 5% 8 soecies with RIVI > 5% D BA RD RF RBA RIVI CRIVI Hydnocarpus alpina Isonandra candolleana Syzygium sp. [pilla njaval]

133 Releve # 5: Kanthallur-6, Mannavan Shola, Altitude: 1,900 m ad; Releve size: 0.1 ha Releve # 6 Kanthallur-6.5, Mannavan Shola Altitude: 1,950 m ad; Releve size: 0.1 ha Contd

134 otinia notoniana Isonandra sp. [vella pala] Litsea sp. Total ReIeve # 8: Nilagiri Ten, Eravikularn NP Altitude: 1,950 rn asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha Ternstroemia japonica Total

135 Releve # 9: Kanthallur-9.5, Mannavan Shola. Altitude: 1,950 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha Releve # 10: V-Point, Eravihlam. Altitude: 2,100 rn asi; Releve size: 0.1 ha Species D BA 8 species with RIVI < 5% species with RNI> 5% RD RF RBA RIVI CRIVI

136 Releve # 11: Kalippettumala, Mannavan Shola (Burnt stand). Altitude: 1,700 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha Releve # 12: Kanthallur-4, Mannavan Shola (Forest-Grassland ecotone). Altitude: 1,750 m asl; Releve size: 0.1 ha. 130

137 Appendix-2 REGENERATION PATTERNS OF SOME SELECTED TREE SPECIES Note : For easiness of reference the descriptions are arranged in the alphabetic sequence of the species names. Stationary life tables of some of the species are also given Acronychia laurifolia: A low tree often found along forest edges; only in one plot (1950 m > asl) was the species well represented, where plants were found represented in all life stages (Table 5.6). Table 5.6 Life table of Acronychia laurifolia n -total population Actinodaphne bourdillonii: The species had a stable population structure with representation in all life stages, but in two out of the three plots in which the species was encountered, some life stages were missing (Table 5.7). n* - total population Ardisia rhomboidea: This underwood species was encountered in all the four plots; it seldom attains a dbh over 20 cm; most of the population was found concentrated in the sapling stage; as in the case of Lasianthus acuminatus, the accumulation of the population in the sapling stage is partially responsible for a second peak in the sapling stage of the population curve of the tree spectrum for the shola forests; however in one of the plots, lower size classes were found amply represented (Table 5.8). Table 5.8 Life table of Ardisia rhomboidea n* - total population; NT: Nilagiri Ten 131

138 Canthium dicoccum; The species scarcely grows over 40 cm dbh: in three of the plots the species was encountered; the life table displays a stable population structure. Slight accumulation of individuals in the sapling stage compared to the established seedlings and pole stages is observed (Table 5.9). Table 5.9 Life table of Canthium dicoccum n* - total population: NT: Nilagiri Ten Celtis wightii: Observed population structure was all the same as for Acronychia laurifolia: most of the life stages were found restricted to one of the two plots where the species was found represented (Table 5.10). Table 5.10 Life table of Celtis wightii n* - total population Chionanthus macrocarpa: The species was represented in three of the plots; only in one of the plots all the life stages were represented, where slight excess of representation of saplings (1-10cm dbh) (Table5.11). Table 5.11 Life table of Chionanthus macrocarpa n* - total population Cinnamomum wightii: Having found represented in all the four sample plots, plants were found represented in all the size classes and no deficiency in any given life stage was evident, except that in some of the plots, the species was absent from sapling stage onward (Table 5.12). I32

139 Table 5.12 Life table of Cinnamomum wightii (Species with a high constancy (>= 75%) and all life stages fairly represented Gomphandra coriacea: Species found in all the five sample plots; In the plot at 2,100 m greater than asl, the species was poorly represented; in two plots only unestablished and established seedlings alone could be encountered (Table 5.13). Table 5.13 Life table of Gomphandra coriaeea Hydnoearpus alpina: The species was present in only two of the semi-permanent plots; only in one plot all the life stages were represented. A slightly excess accumulation of individuals in the sapling stage, compared to the neighbouring classes is observed (Table 5.14). Table 5.14 Life table of Hydnocarpus alpina Alt Total loc h hg d d d d d d n* n* - total population Ilex denticulata: The joint population structure of the species by pooling of the data for the three plots in which the species was found represented had a stable structure (Table 5.15). Table 5.15 Life table of Ilex denticulafa 133

140 Isonandra candolleana: A species with a stable population structure with representation in all the life stages, encountered in all the four sample plots (Table 5.16). Table 5.16 Life table of Isonandra candolleana (Species of medium constancy hut, established regeneration not fairly represented) Lasianthus acuminatus: The species as encountered in all the four plots was most represented in the sapling stage with a few individuals in the pole stage. The species is an underwood, and therefore do not grow beyond 30 cm dbh; only in one plot the species was found represented in unestablished and established seedling stages; however, this indicates that the species is capable of regenerating (Table 5.17). Table 5.17 Life table of Lasianthus acuminatus Ligustrum perrottetii: Out of the three plots in which the species was encountered only in one, the species was represented in most of the life stages; absence of representation in many life stages in the other plots may be because of the sparse distribution pattern of the species (Table 5.18). Table 5.18 Life table of Ligustrum perrottetii n* - total population Litsea ligustrina: This species recorded in two out of the four semi-permanent plots had fair representation in most of the life stages; the tree hardly attains a dbh over 40 cm, and hence larger trees were not represented (Table 5.19). 134

141 Table 5.20 Life table of Litsea ligustrina Alt Total n* - total population loc h50 hg50 d10 d20 d30 n* NT Litsea sp.: Only in one sample plot the specie was found represented in most of the life stages (Table 5.20). Table 5.20 Life table of Litsea sp. n* - total population Mastixia arborea: Encountered in three sample plots; all life stages are amply represented except that, in one of the plots, the samplings (1-10 cm dbh) were in excessive number (Table 5.21). Table 5.21 Life table of Mastixia arborea (Species of medium constancy and all life stages fairly well represented) Persea macrantha: Species encountered in only three sample plots in the elevational belt ,950 m > asl; plants are represented in all life stages; in one of the plots there was an excessive exaggregation of unestablished seedlings (4,433 seedlings ha- 1 perhaps this is due to dispersal of seeds by birds, which accumulate near the roosting trees (Table 5.22) Table 5.22 Life table of Persea macrantha (Species with a high constancy (>= 75%) but, established regeneration not fairly represented)

142 Pygeum gardneri: The species was found represented in most life stages only in one of the two plots, where a higher frequency was recorded in the sapling stage (Table 5.23). Table 5.23 Life table of Pygeum gardneri n* -total population Rapanea wightiana: A species mostly occupying forest edges; different life stages were encountered in different plots; the frequency in established seedlings was less than that of unestablished seedlings and saplings (Table 5.24). Table 5.24 Life table of Rapanea wightiana (Species of high constancy in permanent plots, but not in releves; established regeneration not amply represented) Saprosma foetens: Species inhabiting all the four studied plots; the species was found poorly represented in the life stages, unestablished seedlings and established seedlings (Table 5.25). Table 5.25 Life table of Saprosma foetens Symplocos cochinchinensis: Met in all the four sample plots; the species is well represented in all life stages; the species seldom attains a diameter over 40 cm dbh (Table 5.26). Table 5.26 Life table of Symplocos cochinchinensis n* -total population 136

143 Species of Syzygium: Several species of Syzygium inhabits the shola forests. These species perhaps differ in elevational range and the upper diameter limit (dbh). Life tables of some species are given below, of which the correct identity could not be determined Syzygium densiflorum: The species was recorded only in tow plots >= 1950 m > asl; In the plot at 2,100 m > asl, the species was found represented in most of the life stages (Table 5.27). Table 5.27 Life table of Syzygium densiflorum Syzygium sp. (pilla njaval): Only in two elevational samples the species was found represented; the species was not found growing beyond 20 cm dbh; regeneration cannot be considered insufficient for the 12 individuals represented in the sapling class (Table 5.28). Table 5.28 Life table of Syzygium SP. [pilla niaval] 1950 NT Total Syzygium sp. (potti njaval): Species found inhabiting samples greater than 850 m > as1 was also fairly represented in regeneration. The species seldom grows beyond the sapling size (Table 5.29). Table 5.29 Life table of Syzygium sp. [potti njaval] n* - total population Syzygium sp.: A sparsely distributed species; young regeneration of the species was found satisfactory (Table 5.30). Table 5.30 Life table of Syzygium sp n* -total population I37

144 Ternstroemia japonica: All life stages of the species are encountered, hut some stages missing in each; the samples perhaps represents different stages of the regeneration cycle (Table 5.31; cf. Kimmins, 1987). Table 5.32 Life table of Ternstroemia japonica n* - total population Viburnum coriaceum: Only in two plots the species was encountered; in one plot the population structure was a sable one matching the reverse J-curve; in the other, the species was represented by unestablished seedling alone (Table 5.32). Table 5.32 Life table of Viburnum coriaceum Alt Total n* - total population loc h50 hg50 dl 0 n* NT