Managed Ecosystems and C0 2

Transcription

1 J.Nosberger S.P.Long R.J.Norby M.Stitt G.R.Hendrey H.Blum (Eds.) Managed Ecosystems and C0 2 Case Studies, Processes, and Perspectives With 76 Figures, 5 in Color, and 37 Tables 4y Springer

2 Part A Introduction 1 Introduction 3 J. NOSBERGER and S.P. LONG 1.1 Managed Ecosystems and the Future Supply of Raw Materials Why are [CO 2 ] Enrichment Studies with Managed Ecosystems Important? Free-Air [CO 2 ] Enrichment Spatial and Temporal Scale Elevated [CO 2 ] Affects Plant Growth and Ecosystems via a Multitude of Mechanisms Conclusions 12 References 12 2 FACE Technology: Past, Present, and Future 15 G.R. HENDREY and F. MIGLIETTA 2.1 Introduction Need for Controlled Experiments in the Field: Historical Perspective Advantages of FACE Problems and Limitations CO 2 as a Step Treatment High-Frequency Variation in [CO 2 ] Limited Plot Size 24

3 X Blower Effect FACE Systems Engineering Historical Perspective BNL FACE Design CNR FACE Design Web-FACE Multiple Variable Experiments Future Perspectives The GradFACE Design HotFACE Conclusions 37 References 39 Part B Case Studies 3 The Effects of Free-Air [CO 2 ] Enrichment of Cotton, Wheat, and Sorghum 47 B.A. KlMBALL 3.1 Introduction Description of the FACE System and Experimental Methodology Cotton Resource Availability Resource Acquisition and Transformation CO 2 and Carbon Light Water Nutrients, Consequences for Management Consequences for Plant Breeding Wheat Resource Availability Resource Acquisition and Transformation CO 2 and Carbon Water Nutrients Consequences for Management Consequences for Plant Breeding Sorghum 64

4 XI Resource Availability Resource Acquisition and Transformation CO 2 and Carbon Water Nutrients Consequences for Management Consequences for Plant Breeding Conclusions 66 References 67 4 SoyFACE: the Effects and Interactions of Elevated [CO 2 ] and [O 3 ] on Soybean 71 D.R. ORT, E.A. AINSWORTH, M. ALDEA, D.J. ALLEN, C.J. BERNACCHI, M.R. BERENBAUM, G.A. BOLLERO, G. CORNIC, P.A. DAVEY, O. DERMODY, F.G. DOHLEMAN, J.G. HAMILTON, E.A. HEATON, A.D.B. LEAKEY, J. MAHONEY, T. A. MIES, P.B. MORGAN, R.L. NELSON, B. O'NEIL, A. ROGERS, A.R. ZANGERL, X.-G. ZHU, E.H. DELUCIA, and S.P. LONG 4.1 Introduction Site Description Experimental Treatments Field Layout and Blocking CO 2 Treatment O 3 Treatment CO 2 x O 3 Treatment Resource Acquisition Effects of [CO 2 ] Treatment on Photosynthesis...\ Effects of [O 3 ] Treatment on Photosynthesis Effects of [CO 2 ] and [O 3 ] on Canopy Development Effects of [CO 2 ] and [O 3 ] on Insect Herbivory Resource Transformation Effects of e[co 2 ] Treatment on Crop Production and Yield Effects of O 3 Treatment on Crop Production and Yield Consequences for Future Soybean Crop Management and Plant Breeding Conclusions 83 References 84

5 XII 5 Paddy Rice Responses to Free-Air [CO 2 ] Enrichment K. KOBAYASHI, M. OKADA, H.Y. KIM, M. LIEFFERING, S. MIURA, and T. HASEGAWA 5.1 Introduction to Rice The Rice FACE Experiment: Phase Site Description, Plot Layout and Crop Management Experimental Treatments [CO 2 ] Enrichment N Fertilizer Application Effects of e[co 2 ] on Paddy Rice Effects on Resource Acquisition Phenology Light Capture by Leaves Leaf Photosynthesis Root Development Tillering Accumulation of Plant Biomass and Nitrogen Effects on Resource Transformation Distribution of Plant Biomass and N During Reproductive Growth Grain Yield, Yield Components and Harvest Index Grain Quality Synthesis of Rice Plant Responses to e[co 2 ] and N Fertilization Implications for Rice Production in e[co 2 ] Prediction of Global Change Impacts Adaptations to e[co 2 ] Conclusions 102 References Growth and Quality Responses of Potato to Elevated [CO 2 ]. 105 M. BlNDI, F. MlGLIETTA, F. VACCARI, E. MAGLIULO, and A. GIUNTOLI 6.1 Introdution Site Description Physical: Location, Size, Elevation, Layout of Experiment and Blocking Soil Types, Tillage Practices, Fertilisation, Crop Samplings and Measurements 106

6 XIII Meteorological Description Experimental Treatments Elevated [CO 2 ] Resource Acquisition Effect of Treatments Photosynthesis Canopy Temperature and Energy Balance Water Consumption Crop Phenology and Development Herbivory Resource Transformation Effect of Treatments on Biomass Growth Aboveground Belowground Effect of Treatments on Yield Quantity and Quality Above-and Belowground Biomass Tuber Physical Quality Tuber Chemical Quality Conclusions 118 References Responses of an Arable Crop Rotation System to Elevated [CO 2 ] 121 H.J. WEIGEL, R. MANDERSCHEID, S. BURKART, A. PACHOLSKI, K. WALOSZCZYK, C. FRUHAUF, and O. HEINEMEYER 7.1 Introduction Site Description Location, Climate, Meteorological and Soil Conditions Crop Rotation and Agricultural Management Treatment Design Results Resource Acquisition [CO 2 ] Effects on Photosynthesis (Canopy CO 2 Exchange Rates) [CO 2 ] Effects on Canopy Evapotranspiration ET (Canopy H 2 O Exchange Rate) [CO 2 ] Effects on Leaf Area Index Resource Transformation [CO 2 ] Effects on Above-ground Biomass Production [CO 2 ] Effects on Below-ground Biomass Production

7 XIV [CO 2 ] Effects on Soil Microbial Biomass [CO 2 ] Effects on In Situ Soil CO 2 Efflux Conclusions 134 References Short- and Long-Term Responses of Fertile Grassland to Elevated [CO 2 ] 139 A. LUSCHER, U. AESCHLIMANN, M.K. SCHNEIDER, and H. BLUM 8.1 Introduction Site Description Experimental Treatments Nutrient Availability: A Key Factor for the Plant's Response to e[co 2 ] Above-Ground Yield Resource Acquisition and Resource Allocation Changes over 10 Years in the e[co 2 ] Response of Pure L. perenne Swards N Availability in Soil C and N Sequestration Conclusions 151 References Impacts of Elevated CO 2 on a Grassland Grazed by Sheep: the New Zealand FACE Experiment 157 PCD. NEWTON, V. ALLARD, R.A. CARRAN, and M. LIEFFERING 9.1 Introduction Site Description Experimental Treatments Resource Acquisition Photosynthesis Nutrients Soil Moisture Resource Transformation Aboveground Yield and Species Composition Belowground Yield Chemical Composition and Feed Quality Conclusions 169 References 169

8 XV 10 Responses to Elevated [CO 2 ] of a Short Rotation, Multispecies Poplar Plantation: the POPFACE/EUROFACE Experiment. 173 G. SCARASCIA-MUGNOZZA, C. CALFAPIETRA, R. CEULEMANS, B. GIELEN, M.F. COTRUFO, P. DEANGELIS, D. GODBOLD, M.R. HOOSBEEK, O. KULL, M. LUKAC, M. MAREK, F. MIGLIETTA, A. POLLE, C. RAINES, M. SABATTI, N. ANSELMI, and G. TAYLOR 10.1 Introduction Research Leading to This Experiment Focus on Agroforestry Plantations Objectives and Hypotheses Site Description Location and Layout of Experiment Soil Types, Fertilisation, Irrigation Meteorological Description Stand History and Description Experimental Treatment Atmospheric [CO 2 ] Enrichment Nitrogen Fertilisation Species Comparison Interactions Resource Acquisition Photosynthesis and Respiration Stomatal Conductance Nitrogen and Other Nutrient Concentrations and Dynamics LAI and Light Interception Canopy Architecture Root Development and Mycorrhizal Colonization Resource Transformation Aboveground Productivity Belowground Productivity Soil Carbon: Litter Production, Soil Respiration and C-Pools Wood Quality and Biochemical Composition of Wood and Roots Pest and Disease Susceptibility : Consequences and Implications Forest Management Global Carbon Cycle Other Ecosystem Goods and Services Conclusions 192 References 193

9 XVI 11 The Duke Forest FACE Experiment: CO 2 Enrichment of a Loblolly Pine Forest 197 W.H. SCHLESINGER, E.S. BERNHARDT, E. H. DELUCIA, D.S. ELLSWORTH, A.C. FINZI, G. R. HENDREY, K.S. HOFMOCKEL, J LICHTER, R. MATAMALA, D. MOORE, R. OREN, J.S. PIPPEN, and R.B. THOMAS 11.1 Introduction Site Description Results Resource Acquisition Resource Transformation Nitrogen Limitation Estimated Global Carbon Sink in Forests Conclusions 208 References Impacts of Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] and [O 3 ] on Northern Temperate Forest Ecosystems: Results from the Aspen FACE Experiment 213 D.E KARNOSKY and K.S. PREGITZER 12.1 Introduction Site Description Experimental Treatments Resource Acquisition Photosynthesis and Conductance Respiration Nitrogen Dynamics Leaf Area Root Development Resource Transformation Growth and Productivity Soil Carbon, Wood Quality Pest, Disease and Herbivore Susceptibility Consequences and Implications Conclusions 226 References.. 226

10 XVII 13 CO 2 Enrichment of a Deciduous Forest: The Oak Ridge FACE Experiment 231 R.J. NORBY, S.D. WULLSCHLEGER, P.J. HANSON, C.A. GUNDERSON, T.J. TSCHAPLINSKI, and J.D. JASTROW 13.1 Introduction Site Description Physical Soil Types Meteorological Description Stand Description Experimental Treatments ; Resource Acquisition CO 2 Effects on Physiological Functions and Metabolites Carbon Water Nitrogen CO 2 Effects on Tree and Stand Structure Leaf Area Index Root System Structure Structure-Function Integration Carbon Uptake Stand Water Use Nitrogen Cycling Resource Transformation Productivity Aboveground Production Belowground Production Ecosystem Productivity SoilC ; Carbon Input and Decomposition Carbon Pools Microbial Activity and Nutrient Cycling Products Biotic Interactions Consequences and Implications Forest Management Global C Cycle Conclusions 248 References 249

11 XVIII Part C Processes 14 Long-Term Responses of Photosynthesis and Stomata to Elevated [CO 2 ] in Managed Systems 253 S.P. LONG, E.A. AINSWORTH, C.J. BERNACCHI, P.A. DAVEY, G.J. HYMUS, A.D.B. LEAKEY, P.B. MORGAN, and C.P. OSBORNE 14.1 Introduction The Theory of Responses of Photosynthesis and Stomatal Conductance to Elevated [CO 2 ] Chamber Acclimation and Down-Regulation of Photosynthesis A Purpose to Down-Regulation of Photosynthesis and Stomatal Conductance? Expectations of FACE Why FACE for Photosynthesis and Conductance? Which FACE? Have Findings From FACE Altered Perspectives? Photosynthesis is Increased Less and Stomatal Conductance Decreased More in FACE Photosynthesis is Stimulated Less at the Beginning and End of the Day Stimulation of Photosynthesis is Sustained and Little Affected by Nitrogen Supply In Vivo Rubisco Activity is Decreased More than Capacity for RubP Regeneration Conclusion 266 References Carbon Partitioning and Respiration - Their Control and Role in Plants at High CO P.W. HILL, J.F. FARRAR, E.L. BODDY, A.M. GRAY, and D.L. JONES 15.1 Introduction A Brief Background to Partitioning of Dry Matter and Carbon Export From Source Leaves Whqje-Plant Partitioning Growth and Development Within Root Partitioning Roots are a Sink for Photosynthetically Fixed C 279

12 Root Growth Exudation, Mucilage, and Cell Death Root Death and Turnover Elevated CO 2 and FACE Experiments Respiration Direct and Indirect Effects of CO Above-Ground Respiration and FACE Roots in Soil Below-Ground Respiration and FACE Conclusion 286 References 287 XIX 16 The Response of Foliar Carbohydrates to Elevated [CO 2 ] A. ROGERS and E.A. AINSWORTH 16.1 Introduction Why is it Important to Understand the Response of Foliar Carbohydrates to Growth at e[co 2 ]? What Were the Known Effects of e[co 2 ] on Foliar Carbohydrates Before FACE? Do Carbohydrates Accumulate in the Leaves of Plants Grown in the Field Using FACE Technology? Manipulations of Source-Sink Balance The Effect of Nitrogen Supply on Sink Capacity What Are the Signs of a Limited Sink Capacity? Conclusion 305 References Evapotranspiration, Canopy Temperature, and Plant Water Relations 311 B.A. KIMBALL and C.J. BERNACCHI 17.1 Introduction Canopy Temperature Evapotranspiration Changes in ET with e[co 2 ] Correlations of ET with Canopy Temperature and Shoot Biomass Changes Applicability of Plot-Scale ET Measurements to Regional Scales Combined Physiological and Global-Warming Effects ofe[co 2 ] onet 318

13 XX 17.4 Soil Water Content Plant Water Use Efficiency Plant Water Relations Conclusions 321 References Biological Nitrogen Fixation: A Key Process for the Response of Grassland Ecosystems to Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] U.A. HARTWIG and M.J. SADOWSKY 18.1 Introduction Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] Appears Not to Affect the Activity of Symbiotic N 2 Fixation The Initial Response of Symbiotic N 2 Fixation to Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] Under Field Conditions is Different From That Under Continuous Nutrient Supply What Are the Possible Reasons For the Differential Responses of Symbiotic N 2 Fixation to Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] in Laboratory and Field Experiments? The Time Component, While Often Suggested, Is Now Evident in the 10-Year Swiss FACE Experiment The Significance of Symbiotic N 2 Fixation Under Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] in Terrestrial Ecosystems: An Attempt to Reach a General Conclusion Conclusion 332 References Effects of Elevated [CO 2 ] and N Fertilization on Interspecific Interactions in Temperate Grassland Model Ecosystems A. LUSCHER and U. AESCHLIMANN 19.1 Introduction Materials and Methods Experimental Site Experimental Treatments Data Collection and Statistical Analysis Results Proportion of T. repens in Mixture Biomass and Nitrogen Yield 340

14 XXI Relative Yield of Biomass and Nitrogen Discussion Interspecific Differences in the Response to e[co 2 ] Were Augmented in the Mixed Community When Compared to the Pure Sward Competitive Ability Depended Strongly on the Species, the N and [CO 2 ] Treatments Resource Complementarity Strongly Depended on the N and [CO 2 ] Treatments Conclusions 347 References The Potential of Genomics and Genetics to Understand Plant Response to Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] 351 G. TAYLOR, P.J. TRICKER, L.E. GRAHAM, M.J. TALLIS, A.M. RAE, H.TREWIN, and N.R. STREET 20.1 Introduction What We Know and What We Need to Know Can an Integrative (Systems) Biology Approach be Useful? Genomics in Field-Grown Plants Transcript Profiling Use of Expression Arrays in FACE Experiments QTL Discovery for Responsive Traits Association Genetics Proteomics and Metabolomics in Field-Grown Plants The Importance of Experimental Design and Sampling Strategy in FACE Facilities \ The Future I Conclusions 366 References The Impact of Elevated Atmospheric [CO 2 ] on Soil C and N Dynamics: A Meta-Analysis 373 K.-J. VAN GROENIGEN, M.-A. DE GRAAFF, J. SIX, D. HARRIS, P. KUIKMAN, and C. VAN KESSEL 21.1 Introduction Materials and Methods 374

15 XXII Database Compilation Statistical Analyses Results Soil C and N Microbial Biomass and Activity Discussion Soil C Microbial Biomass and Activity Soil N Dynamics Future Research Needs Conclusions 386 References The Influence of Elevated [ CO 2 ] on Diversity, Activity and Biogeochemical Functions of Rhizosphere and Soil Bacterial Communities 393 S. TARNAWSKI and M. ARAGNO 22.1 Introduction Interactions Between Soil Microbiota and Rhizosphere Conditions Effect of e[co 2 ] on Rhizodeposition Responses of Microbial Biomass, Cell Number and Activity Effects on Soil Structure and Enzyme Activities Responses of Bacterial Community Structure to e[co 2 ] Elevated [CO 2 ] and Nitrogen Cycle in Soil and Rhizosphere N-pools, Uptake and Mineralization N 2 Fixation Nitrification Denitrification Plant-Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria Discussion and Perspectives Conclusions 408 References : Increases in Atmospheric [CO 2 ] and the Soil Food Web D.A. PHILLIPS, T.C. FOX, H. FERRIS, and J.C. MOORE 23.1 Introduction Soil Food Webs: The Concept 414

16 XXIII 23.2, Effects of Elevated [CO 2 ] on Soil Organic Matter and the Food Web Root Exudation and the Effects of Elevated [CO 2 ] Linking Plants to Soil Food Webs under Changing [CO 2 ] Conclusions 422 References 423 Part D Perspectives 24 FACE Value: Perspectives on the Future of Free-Air CO 2 Enrichment Studies 431 A. ROGERS, E.A. AINSWORTH, and C. KAMMANN 24.1 The Value of FACE Experiments What Have We Learnt From FACE? Photosynthesis and Aboveground Productivity Photosynthetic Acclimation Response of Different Functional Groups Belowground Responses What Is Missing From Current FACE Research and What Are the Gaps in Understanding? Additional Treatments Future Challenges What Is the Fate of C Partitioned Belowground? N Cycling Soil Faunal Food Webs and Soil Structure Trace Gases I Technologies for Future FACE Science The Use of Stable Isotopes Genomic Technologies and Tools in FACE A Potential Problem for Long-Running FACE Experiments? Conclusion 444 References 445 Subject Index 451