V - Ekologické modely a mikrosvět. Ekologie volně žijících pro3st

Transcription

1 V - Ekologické modely a mikrosvět Ekologie volně žijících pro3st

2 modely a morfologie

3 modely a morfologie Bergmann s rule (1847) - there is a general intraspecific trend, in endothermic vertebrates, towards larger size in cooler environments

4 modely a morfologie Bergmann s rule the island rule (1964) - the trend for small species to become larger, and large species smaller, on islands

5 modely a morfologie Bergmann s rule the island rule Rapoport s rule (1975) - a general posi9ve rela9onship between the la9tudinal extent of an organism's geographical range size and la9tude

6 modely a morfologie Bergmann s rule the island rule Rapoport s rule Cope s Rule (1871) - větší znamená lepší ve smyslu vztahu kořist-predátor, úspěšnost přežif, spektrum potravy, regulace teploty NEBO nika pro největšího je vždy volná

7 modely a morfologie Cope s rule (1871) - tradiční vysvětlení: větší znamená lepší - novodobé vysvětlení: linie se vyvíjejí z malých velikosf spíše než k větším velikostem, protože malé organismy jsou méně specializované - evoluční trendy: pasivní či řízené co do velikos9

8 modely a morfologie Stanley (1973)

9 modely a morfologie McShea (1994)

10 modely a morfologie Stanley (1973)

11 modely a morfologie Schmidt et al. (2006)

12 modely a morfologie Alometrie - D Arcy Thompson, Julian Huxley - celková velikost vs. např. tvar - Y = Y 0 M b nebo log Y = log Y 0 + b log M b = škálovací / alometrický koeficient / sklon - On Growth and Form (Thompson 1971), význam matema9ckých a fyzikálních zákonů - ontogene9cká, sta9cká, evoluční - isometrické, alometrické škálování Scaling in Biology (2000)

13 modely a morfologie Figure 2: The brain and heart grow at different rates rela3ve to the body. Growth of the heart is more or less isometric to body size, with an allometric coefficient of In contrast growth of the brain is ini3ally hypoallometric to body size, with an allometric coefficient of 0.73, before growth stops once the body reaches a certain size, at about age 6. Consequently, head size becomes propor3onally smaller as individuals grow to their final body size. Illustra3ons show body propor3ons at birth, 2, 5 and 20 years of age. (Adapted from Moore 1983; Data from Thompson 1917) Shingleton (2010)

14 modely a morfologie Neidium ampliatum Mann (1999)

15 modely a morfologie Scaling in Biology (2000)

16 modely a morfologie Complexity and cryp3c diversity - does cryp9c diversity increase with decreasing morphological complexity? - how many unique morphologies there are and how many of the species can be reliably dis9nguished from one another morphologically? Verbruggen [phycoweb.wordpress.com]

17 modely a morfologie Verbruggen [phycoweb.wordpress.com]

18 modely a morfologie Kociolek (1998)

19 nika vs. neutralita

20 nika vs. neutralita niche par<<oning tradi9onal explana9ons for the local coexistence of species hold that the balance of nature is delicately related to differences in how species interact with their local environments (their niches ), with popula9ons of each species being primarily regulated by dis9nct environmental factors. Such niche par99oning results in stable frequency dependence, in which each species increases rela9ve to others when it is rare, and decreases when it is common. a neutral theory stochas9c demography and dispersal are more important, and they allow the widespread coexistence of species with iden9cal niches. This neutral theory has provided possible explana9ons for the occurrence of highly diverse communi9es that challenge the tradi9onal view, and has indicated ways to account for them with simple models. Leibold (2008)

21 nika vs. neutralita niche par<<oning - mechanisms such as compe99ve interac9ons, density dependence, local adapta9ons, and niche differen9a9on... species are ecologically and func9onally different, and environmental context is important a neutral theory - importance of stochas9c processes... species differences are not necessarily evidence of important roles for niche differen9a9on... does not imply that species are undifferen9ated in their traits. Rather it asks the ques9ons: do these differences maker in terms of ecological community structure, and are they func9onally significant?... the abundance of species changes by chance and not because of differences in compe99ve ability... varia9on in abundance between species is a result of accidental dispersal and ecological drin (stochas9c varia9on in birth and death rates) Mahhews & Whihaker (2014)

22 patch-dynamics species-sor3ng nika vs. neutralita mass-efect neutral Leibold et al. (2004)

23 nika vs. neutralita the patch-dynamics paradigm is shown with condi3ons that permit coexistence: a compe33oncoloniza3on trade-off is illustrated with species A being a superior compe3tor but species B being a superior colonist; the third patch is vacant and could become occupied by either species Leibold et al. (2004)

24 nika vs. neutralita In (a, speciessor<ng) species are separated into spa3al niches and dispersal is not sufficient to alter their distribu3on. Leibold et al. (2004)

25 nika vs. neutralita In (c, mass effect) mass effects cause species to be present in both source and sink habitats; the smaller lehers and symbols indicate smaller sized popula3ons Leibold et al. (2004)

26 nika vs. neutralita In (d, neutral) all species are currently present in all patches; species would gradually be lost from the region and would be replaced by specia3on. Leibold et al. (2004)

27 nika vs. neutralita R. Stevens, Louisiana State University

28 SAD modely

29 SAD modely McGill et al. (2007)

30 SAD modely Ugland et al. (2003)

31 SAD modely logseries (open squares) - disturbed unstable, or early successional habitats; neutrality lognormal (black dots) - influence of many ecological factors, resource par33oning models; unstressed communi3es Ulrich et al. (2010)

32 SAD modely Ugland & Gray (1982)

33 SAD modely Mahhews et al. (2014)

34 SAD modely Figure 2. Exemplar fits of three species abundance distribu3on models: the zero-sum mul3nomial distribu3on of Hubbell s (2001) spa3ally implicit neutral model, the Poisson lognormal distribu3on and the logseries distribu3on (Fisher et al. 1943). The models are fihed to simulated data (green bars; 365 species and individuals). The three models are fihed using maximum likelihood methods. The simulated data are binned into octaves following method 3 in Gray et al. (2006): the first octave contains the number of species represented one individual, the second octave contains the number of species with 2 3 individuals, the third octave represents 4 7 individuals, and so on. The asymmetry of the ZSM enables it to provide a beher fit than the other distribu3ons to the lep hand tail of the empirical distribu3on. Mahhews & Whihaker (2014)

35 monopolizace zdrojů

36 monopolizace zdrojů founder effect a daughter popula9on or migrant popula9on may differ in gene9c composi9on from its parent popula9on because the founders of the daughter popula9on were not a representa9ve sample of the parent popula9on. the monopoliza<on hypothesis - rapid popula9on growth and local adapta9on upon coloniza9on of a new habitat result in the effec9ve monopoliza9on of resources, yielding a strong priority effect... priority effects, where early arriving species affect the establishment of later arriving species De Meester (2002)

37 monopolizace zdrojů a new patch for both original patch of red species Urban & De Meester (2009)

38 monopolizace zdrojů a new patch for both original patch of red species Urban & De Meester (2009)

39 monopolizace zdrojů Figure 1. The invasibility of zooplankton communi3es in the salt and nutrient treatments for the (A) short-delay, (B) medium-delay and (C) long-delay dispersal treatments. The ver3cal lines represent standard devia3on of the means. Symons & Arnoh (2014)

40 fylogene<cká struktura

41 fylogene<cká struktura habitat filtering (phenotypic ahrac3on) environment as a filter, removing species that lack traits for persis9ng under a par9cular set of condi9ons compe<<ve exclusion (phenotypic repulsion) similar species cannot coexist; a limit to the number of species inhabi9ng a par9cular community, at which niche space is fully saturated phylogene<c overdispersion (repulsion) closely related species co-occurring less onen than expected phylogene<c clustering closely related species co-occurring more onen than expected Pausas & Verdú (2010)

42 fylogene<cká struktura Webb et al. (2002), Pausas & Verdú (2010)

43 fylogene<cká struktura Cavender-Bares et al. (2004)

44 fylogene<cká struktura Cavender-Bares (2009)