Physics for Radiation Protection
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1 James E. Martin Physics for Radiation Protection Third Completely Updated Edition WI LEY WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
2 I vu Contents Preface XVII 1 Structure of Atoms Atom Constituents Structure, Identity, and Stability of Atoms Chart of the Nuclides Nuclear Models 8 Problems Chapter Atoms and Energy Atom Measures Energy Concepts for Atoms Mass-energy Binding Energy of Nuclei Summary 18 Other Suggested Sources 18 Problems Chapter Radioactive Transformation Processes of Radioactive Transformation Transformation of Neutron-rich Radioactive Nuclei Double Beta (ßß) Transformation Transformation of Proton-rich Nuclei Positron Emission Average Energy of Negatron and Positron Emitters Electron Capture (EC) Radioactive Transformation of Heavy Nuclei by Alpha Particle Emission Theory of Alpha Particle Transformation Transuranic (TRU) Radionuclides Gamma Emission Internal Transition (Metastable or Isomeric States) Internal Conversion 43 Physics for Radiation Protection, Third Edition. James E. Martin Copyright (E) 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA. Published 2013 by WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
3 VIII I Contents Multiple Modes of Radioactive Transformation Transformation by Delayed Neutron Emission Transformation by Spontaneous Fission Proton Emission Decay Schemes Rate of Radioactive Transformation Activity Units of Radioactive Transformation Mathematics of Radioactive Transformation Half-Life Mean Life Effective Half-life Radioactivity Calculations Half-life Determination Activity mass Relationships Specific Activity Radioactive Series Transformation Series Decay Calculations Recursive Kinetics: the Bateman Equations Radioactive Equilibrium Secular Equilibrium Transient Equilibrium Radionuclide Generators Total Number of Transformations (Uses of z and.1e ff) Discovery of the Neutrino 86 Acknowledgments 87 Other Suggested Sources 87 Problems Chapter Interactions Production of X-rays Characteristic X-rays X-rays and Atomic Structure Auger Electrons Nuclear Interactions Cross-Section Q-values for Nuclear Reactions Alpha Particle Interactions Alpha Neutron Reactions Transmutation by Protons and Deuterons Proton Alpha Particle (p,a) Reactions Proton Neutron (p,n) Reactions Proton Gamma (p,y) Reactions Proton Deuteron Reactions Deuteron Alpha (d,a) Reactions 111
4 4.5.6 Deuteron Proton (d,p) and Deuteron Neutron (d,n) Reactions Neutron Interactions Radiative Capture (n,y) Reactions Charged Partide Emission (CP E) Neutron Proton (n,p) Reactions Neutron Neutron (n,2n) Reactions Activation Product Calculations Neutron Activation Product Calculations Charged Particles Calculations Medical Isotope Reactions Transuranium Elements Photon Interactions Activation by Photons Fission and Fusion Reactions Fission Fusion Summary 138 Other Suggested Sources 139 Problems Chapter Nuclear Fission and its Products Fission Energy Physics of Sustained Nuclear Fission Neutron Economy and Reactivity Nudear Power Reactors Reactor Design: Basic Systems Light Water Reactors (LWRs) Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) Inherent Safety Features of LWRs Decay Heat in Power Reactors Uranium Enrichment Heavy Water Reactors (HWRs) HWR Safety Systems Breeder Reactors Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) Gas-cooled Reactors High-temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR) Reactor Radioactivity Fuel Cladding Radioactive Products of Fission Production of Individual Fission Products Fission Products in Spent Fuel Fission Product Poisons Radioactivity in Reactors 188 Co nte nts I IX
5 XI Contents Activation Products in Nuclear Reactors 188 Tritium Production in Reactors 191 Low-level Radioactive Waste 192 Summary 193 Acknowledgments 194 Other Suggested Sources 195 Problems Chapter Naturally Occurring Radiation and Radioactivity Discovery and Interpretation Background Radiation Cosmic Radiation Cosmogenic Radionuclides Naturally Radioacitve Series Neptunium Series Radionuclides Singly Occurring Primordial Radionuclides Radioactive Ores and Byproducts Resource Recovery Uranium Ores Water Treatment Sludge Phosphate Industry Wastes Elemental Phosphorus Manhattan Project Wastes Thorium Ores Radioactivity Dating Carbon Dating Dating by Primordial Radionuclides Potassium Argon Dating Ionium ( 230Th) Method Lead-210 Dating Radon and its Progeny Radon Subseries Working Level for Radon Progeny Measurement of Radon Summary 240 Acknowledgements 241 Other Suggested Sources 241 Problems Chapter Interactions of Radiation with Matter Radiation Dose and Units Radiation Absorbed Dose Radiation Dose Equivalent Radiation Exposure Radiation Dose Calculations 249
6 Contents 'XI Inverse Square Law Interaction Processes Interactions of Alpha Particles and Heavy Nudei Recoil Nuclei and Fission Fragments Range of Alpha Partides Beta Particle Interactions and Dose Energy Loss by Ionization Energy Losses by Bremsstrahlung Cerenkov Radiation Attenuation of Beta Particles Range Versus Energy of Beta Particles Radiation Dose from Beta Partides Beta Dose from Contaminated Surfaces Beta Contamination on Skin or Clothing Beta Dose from Hot Particles Photon Interactions Photoelectric Interactions Compton Interactions Pair Production Photodisintegration Photon Attenuation and Absorption Attenuation (u) and Energy Absorption (,u En )Coefficients Effect of E and Z on Photon Attenuation/Absorption Absorption Edges 286 Checkpoints Energy Transfer and Absorption by Photons Electronic Equilibrium Bragg Gray Theory Exposure/Dose Calculations Point Sources Gamma Ray Constant, F Exposure and Absorbed Dose Exposure, Kerma, and Absorbed Dose Summary 303 Acknowledgments 303 Other Suggested Sources 304 Problems Chapter Radiation Shielding Shielding of Alpha-Emitting Sources Shielding of Beta-Emitting Sources Attenuation of Beta Partides Bremsstrahlung Effects for Beta Shielding Shielding of Photon Sources Shielding of Good Geometry Photon Sources 315
7 XII I Contents Half-Value and Tenth-Value Layers Shielding of Poor Geometry Photon Sources Use of Buildup Factors Effect of Buildup an Shield Thickness Mathematical Formulations of the Buildup Factor Gamma Flux for Distributed Sources Line Sources Ring Sources Disc and Planar Sources Shield Designs for Area Sources Gamma Exposure from Thick Slabs Volume Sources Buildup Factors for Layered Absorbers Shielding of Protons and Light Ions Summary 360 Acknowledgments 360 Other Suggested Sources 361 Problems Chapter Internal Radiation Dose Absorbed Dose in Tissue Accumulated Dose Internal Dose: Medical Uses 369 Checkpoints Factors In The Internal Dose Equation The Dose Reciprocity Theorem Deposition and Clearance Data Multicompatiment Retention Radiation Dose from Radionuclide Intakes Risk-Based Radiation Standards Committed Effective Dose Equivalent (CEDE) Biokinetic Models: Risk-Based Internal Dosimetry Radiation Doses Due to Inhaled Radionuclides Radiation Doses Due to Ingested Radionuclides Operational Determinations of Internal Dose Submersion Dose 406 Checkpoints Tritium: a Special Case Bioassay of Tritium: a Special Case Summary 411 Other Suggested Sources 412 Problems Chapter Environmental Dispersion Atmospheric Dispersion 417
8 Contents 'XIII Atmospheric Stability Effects on Dispersion Atmospheric Stability Classes Calculational Procedure: Uniform Stability Conditions Distance xmax of Maximum Concentration (xmax) Stack Effects 427 Checkpoints Nonuniform turbulence: Fumigation, Building Effects Fumigation Dispersion for an Elevated Receptor Building Wake Effects: Mechanical Turbulence Concentrations of Effluents in Building Wakes Ground-level Area Sources Effect of Mechanical Turbulence on Far-field Diffusion Puff Releases Sector-Averaged x/ Q Values Deposition/Depletion: Guassian Plumes Dry Deposition Air Concentration Due to Resuspension Wet Deposition Summary 452 Other Suggested Sources 452 Problems Chapter Nuclear Criticality Nuclear Reactors and Criticality Three Mile Island Accident Chernobyl Accident NRX Reactor: Chalk River, Ontario, December SL-1 Accident K-reactor, Savannah River Site, Fukushima-Daichi Plant Japan, March 11, Nuclear Explosions Fission Weapons Fusion Weapons Products of Nuclear Explosions Fission Product Activity and Exposure 467 Checkpoints Criticality Accidents Y-12 Plant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN: June 16, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, NM: December 30, Idaho Chemical Processing Plant: October 16, 1959, January 25, 1961, and October 17, Hanford Recuplex Plant: April 7, Wood River Junction RI: July 24, UKAEA Windscale Works, UK: August 24,
9 XIV I Contents Bare and Reflected Metal Assemblies Radiation Exposures in Criticality Events Criticality Safety Criticality Safety Parameters Fission Product Release in Criticality Events Fast Fission in Criticality Events Summary 485 Acknowledgments 486 Other Suggested Sources 486 Problems Chapter Radiation Detection and Measurement Gas-Filled Detectors Crystalline Detectors/Spectrometers Semiconducting Detectors Gamma Spectroscopy Gamma-Ray Spectra: hv MeV Gamma-Ray Spectra: hv MeV Escape Peaks and Sum Peaks Gamma Spectroscopy of Positron Emitters Portable Field Instruments Geiger Counters Ion Chambers Microrem Meters Alpha Radiation Monitoring Beta Radiation Surveys Removable Radioactive Surface Contamination Instrument Calibration Personnel Dosimeters Film Badges Thermoluminescence Dosimeters (TLDs) Pocket Dosimeters Laboratory Instruments Liquid Scintillation Analysis Proportional Counters End-window GM Counters Surface Barrier Detectors Range Versus Energy of Beta Partides 519 Other Suggested Sources 520 Problems Chapter
10 13 Statistics in Radiation Physics Nature of Counting Distributions Binomial Distribution Poisson Distribution Normal Distribution Mean and Standard Deviation of a Set of Measurements Uncertainty in the Activity of a Radioactive Source Uncertainty in a Single Measurement 533 Checkpoints Propagation of Error Statistical Subtraction of a Background Count or Count Rate Error Propagation of Several Uncertain Parameters Comparison of Data Sets Are Two Measurements Different? Statistics for the Counting Laboratory Uncertainty of a Radioactivity Measurement Determining a Count Time Efficient Distribution of Counting Time Detection and Uncertainty for Gamma Spectroscopy Testing the Distribution of a Series of Counts (the Chi-square Statistic) Weighted Sample Mean Rejection of Data Levels of Detection Critical Level Detection Limit (Ld) or Lower Level of Detection (LLD) Minimum Detectable Concentration or Contamination Minimum Detectable Concentration (MDConc.) Minimum Detectable Contamination (MDCont.) Less-than Level (Lt) Interpretations and Restrictions Log Normal Data Distributions Particle Size Analysis 565 Acknowledgment 569 Other Suggested Sources 569 Chapter 13 Problems 569 Contents IXV 14 Neutrons Neutron Sources Neutron Parameters Neutron Interactions Neutron Attenuation and Absorption Neutron Dosimetry Dosimetry for Fast Neutrons Dose from Thermal Neutrons 583
11 XVI I Contents Monte Carlo Calculations of Neutron Dose Kerma for Neutrons Dose Equivalent Versus Neutron Flux Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) Neutron Shielding Neutron Shielding Materials Neutron Shielding Calculations Neutron Removal Coefficients Neutron Attenuation in Concrete Neutron Detection Measurement of Thermal Neutrons Measurement of Intermediate and Fast Neutrons Neutron Foils Albedo Dosimeters Flux Depression of Neutrons Summary 605 Acknowledgment 605 Other Suggested Sources 605 Problems Chapter Answers to Selected Problems 607 Appendix A 613 Appendix B 615 Appendix C 625 Appendix D 629 Index 657
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