Astrodynamics (AERO0024)

Transcription

1 Astrodynamics (AERO0024) 3A. The Orbit in Space and Time Gaëtan Kerschen Space Structures & Systems Lab (S3L)

2 Previous Lecture: The Two-Body Problem 2.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE 2-BODY MODEL 2.2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD Newton s law of universal gravitation The Earth Gravity models and geoid 2.3 RELATIVE MOTION Equations of motion Closed-form solution 2.4 RESULTING ORBITS Circular orbits Elliptic orbits Parabolic orbits Hyperbolic orbits 2

3 Importance of Time Fundamental to astrodynamics is keeping track of when events occur. A robust time system is therefore crucial. For example: when will I see Halley s comet in the sky? when will New Horizons arrive at Pluto? Applications such as GPS rely on an extremely precise time measurement system. 3

4 Newton s laws F ma F g mm G r 1 2 uˆ 2 r Relative motion r r 3 r Energy conserv. 2 v 2 r Angular mom. h rr Azim. velocity r Kepler s 1 st law 2 h 1 1 ecos The orbit equation v h / r Kepler s 2 nd law da/ dt h/ 2 We have lost track of the time variable! T Kepler s 3 rd law 2 a /

5 Complexity of Time Systems 5

6 Complexity of Time Systems: STK 6

7 3. The Orbit in Space and Time 3.1 Orbital position as a function of time 3.2 Time systems 7

8 3. The Orbit in Space and Time 3.1 Orbital position as a function of time Kepler s equation Orbit propagation 8

9 Time Since Periapsis What is the time required to fly between any two true anomaly? Hint: Kepler s law 2 3 h dt d 1 ecos 2 da 1 d h dt 2 dt 2 2 r r Kepler s second law 2 h 1 1 ecos Orbit equation Kepler s equation constant 2 d tt 3 p h 0 1 ecos Sixth missing constant (t p =0) 2 d t 3 h 0 1 ecos 2 2 9

10 Circular Orbits 2 d t 3 h 0 1 ecos 2 2 h t 3 0 d 3 3/ 2 h r T t t T Obvious, because the angular velocity is constant Kepler s equation 10

11 Elliptic Orbits Because the angular velocity of a spacecraft along an eccentric orbit is continuously varying (see constant areal velocity), the expression of the angular position versus time is no longer trivial. 2 h t 3 0 0e1 d 1 ecos 2 Mean anomaly, M e e 1e sin 2 tan tan 2 3/ 2 1 e 1 e 2 1ecos 3 a Tellip 2 h a e 2 (1 ) h 2 T 2 2 3/ 2 M 1 e t t nt Kepler s equation 11

12 Mean Anomaly Is Related to Time For circular orbits, the mean M and true anomalies θ are identical. For elliptic orbits, the mean anomaly represents the angular displacement of a fictitious body moving around the ellipse at the constant angular speed n Kepler s equation 12

13 Eccentric Anomaly Is Related to Position E r θ a ae 13

14 Eccentric Anomaly: Relation with Mean Anomaly? acos E ae r cos e cos cos 2 1 e E r a L2 1 ecos 1 ecos 2 2 cos Esin E1 Graph 2 sin E 1 e sin 1 ecos e cos cos E 1 ecos 2 1 e sin sin E 1 ecos tan E 1cos E 1e tan 2 1cos E 1e E 1 1 e 2 tan tan 1 e Kepler s equation 14

15 Kepler s Equation M 2 1 1e e 1e sin 2 tan tan 1 e 2 1ecos M nt E esin E It relates time, in terms of M=nt, to position, in terms of E, r=a(1-e.cose) Kepler s equation 15

16 Usefulness of Kepler s Equation θ and orbit are given 1 1 e E 2 tan tan 1 e 2 Practical application: Determine the time at which a satellite passes from sunlight into the Earth s shadow (the location of this point is known from the geometry). M E esin E t M T Kepler s equation 16

17 Example A geocentric elliptic orbit has a perigee radius of 9600 km and an apogee radius of km. Calculate the time to fly from perigee to a true anomaly of 120. L2 ra rp e r r E a p tan e tan rad 1 e 2 M E esin E rad 3 a rp ra T 2 2 / 18834s 2 t M T s=1h07m57s Kepler s equation 17

18 Usefulness of Kepler s Equation t is given 2 t M T Practical application: Perform a rendez-vous with the ISS (ATV, STS, Soyuz, Progress). M E esin E Transcendental equation!!! (with a unique solution) Kepler s equation 18

19 Numerical Solution: Newton-Raphson Algorithm for finding approximations to the zeros of a nonlinear function. Recursive application of Taylor series truncated after the first derivative. The initial guess should be close enough to the actual solution Kepler s equation 19

20 Numerical Solution: Newton-Raphson Example: find the zero of f(x)=0.5(x-1) f(x) x Kepler s equation 20

21 Analytic Solution: Lagrange E M a e n1 n n floor ( n/ 2) 1 1 n1 2 k0 n k! k! k n1 1 2 sin 2 an n k n k M Convergence if e< For small values of the eccentricity a good agreement with the exact solution is obtained using a few terms (e.g., 3) Kepler s equation 21

22 Analytic Solution: Bessel Functions 2 E M Jn nesin nm n n1 J n ( x) k n2k 1 x k0 n k! k! 2 Convergence for all values of the eccentricity less than Kepler s equation 22

23 Parabolic and Hyperbolic Orbits 2 d t tan tan h M 1 cos t tan tan 3 h F e1 e1 tan( / 2) ln e1 e1 tan( / 2) M esinh F F Kepler s equation 23

24 Prediction of the Position and Velocity If the position and velocity r 0 and v 0 of an orbiting body are known at a given instant t 0, how can we compute the position and velocity r and v at any later time t? Concept of f and g function and series: r( t) f ( t, t, r, v ) r g( t, t, r, v ) v a f 1 1 cos( E E0) r Prussing and Conway J.E. Prussing, B.A. Conway, Orbital Mechanics, Oxford University Press 3 a g t t0 E E0 sin( E E0) Orbit propagation 24

25 Prediction of the Position and Velocity Some form of Kepler s equation must still be solved by iteration. However, Gauss developed a series expansion in the elapsed time parameter t-t 0, and there is no longer the need to solve Kepler s equation: r( t) f ( t, t, r, v ) r g( t, t, r, v ) v f t t r v r0 2 r t t g t t t t r v r0 4 r t t Orbit propagation 25

26 Matlab Example Orbit propagation 26

27 3. The Orbit in Space and Time 3.2 Time systems Clocks Universal time Earth s rotation Atomic time Coordinated universal time Julian date 27

28 Everyday Time Systems Are conventional local time systems adequate for orbital mechanics? They depend on the user s position on Earth. They are in a format (Y/M/D/H/M/S) that does not lend itself to use in a computer-implemented algorithm. For instance, what is the difference between any two dates? Objective of this section: What would be a meaningful time system? 28

29 What are the Ingredients of a Time System? 2. The epoch 1. The interval 1. The interval (a time reckoner): a repeatable phenomenon whose motion or change of state is observable and obeys a definite law. 2. The epoch (a time reference) from which to count intervals Clocks 29

30 Historical Perspective From remote antiquity, the celestial bodies have been the fundamental reckoners of time (e.g. rising and setting of the Sun). Sundials were among the first instruments used to measure the time of the day. The Egyptians divided the day and night into 12h each, which varied with the seasons (unequal seasonal hour) Clocks 30

31 Historical Perspective It was not until the 14 th century that an hour of uniform length became customary due to the invention of mechanical clocks. Quartz-crystal clocks were developed in the 1920s. The first atomic clock was constructed in 1948, and the first caesium atomic clock in Quantum (aluminium) clocks soon (Nobel Prize 2012)? Clocks 31

32 Three Time Scales 1. Universal time: the time scale based on the rotation of the Earth on its axis. 2. Atomic time: the time scale based on the quantum mechanics of the atom. 3. Ephemeris time (not discussed herein): the time scale based on the revolution of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun Clocks 32

33 Can We Use the Real Sun? Apparent solar time, as read directly by a sundial, is the local time defined by the actual diurnal motion of the Sun. Apparent solar day is the time required for the sun to lie on the same meridian. Due to the eccentricity of Earth s orbit, the length of the apparent solar day varies throughout the year. The real sun is not well suited for time reckoning purposes Universal time 33

34 Can We Use a Fictitious Sun? At noon the fictitious sun lies on the Greenwich meridian. A mean solar day comprises 24 hours. It is the time interval between successive transits of a fictitious mean sun over a given meridian. A constant velocity in the motion about the sun is therefore assumed. The mean solar second can be defined as 1/86400 of a mean solar day Universal time 34

35 Apparent and Mean Solar Days Approximation where E is in minutes, sin and cos in degrees, and N is the day number: E 9.87sin 2B 7.53cos B 1.5sin B 360 ( N 81) B 365 Equation of time Universal time 35

36 Mean Solar Day and Mean Sidereal Day 1 solar day= sidereal day Universal time 36

37 Universal Time Universal time is today s realization of a mean solar time (introduced in 1920s). It is the same everywhere on Earth. It is referred to the meridian of Greenwich and reckoned from midnight. Different versions: UT1 UT0: obsolete UT2: rarely used Universal time 37

38 Universal Time UT1 UT1 is the observed rotation of the Earth with respect to the mean sun. It is based on the measurement of the Earth rotation angle with respect to an inertial reference frame (sidereal day). A conversion from mean sidereal day to mean solar day is therefore necessary. Earth rotation angle (sidereal day) UT1 (solar day) Universal time 38

39 Accurate Determination of ERA? The most remote objects in the universe are quasars in a distance of about 3-15 billion light years. Because quasars are at such great distances that their motions across the sky are undetectable, they form a quasi-inertial reference frame, called the international celestial reference frame. Quasars can be detected with very sensitive radiotelescopes. By observing the diurnal motion of distant quasars (more precise than sun-based observations), it is possible to relate the position, orientation and rotation of the Earth to the inertial reference frame realized by these quasars Universal time 39

40 Very Long Baseline Interferometry A radio telescope with a cryogenic dual band S/X-band receiver (TIGO, Concepcion, Chili) Universal time 40

41 Very Long Baseline Interferometry Universal time 41

42 IAU2000 Definition of Universal Time UT1 Earth rotation angle at J UT1 1 solar day= sidereal day ERA = 2π( Tu) radians Tu is directly related to UT1: Julian UT1 date ERA: Earth rotation angle with respect to the international celestial reference frame. It is measured using VLBI. Its time derivative is the Earth s angular velocity Universal time 42

43 Can We Trust the Earth s Rotation? No! The Earth's rotation rate is not uniform. It exhibits changes on the order of 2 milliseconds per day. Corals dating from 370 millions years ago indicate that the number of days was between 385 and 410. There also exists random and seasonal variations. In addition, the axis of rotation is not fixed in space Earth s rotation 43

44 Rotation Rate: Steady Deceleration The Moon is at the origin of tides: the water of the oceans bulges out along both ends of an axis passing through the centers of the Earth and Moon. The tidal bulge closely follows the Moon in its orbit, and the Earth rotates under this bulge in a day. Due to friction, the rotation drags the position of the tidal bulge ahead of the position directly under the Moon. Energy transfer from the Earth to the Moon A substantial amount of mass in the bulge is offset from the line through the centers of the Earth and Moon. Because of this offset, there exists a torque which boosts the Moon in its orbit, and decelerates the rotation of the Earth Earth s rotation 44

45 Rotation Rate: Steady Deceleration In addition to this tidal acceleration of the Moon, the Earth is also slowing down due to tidal friction. Tides stretch the oceans, and to a small extent, the solid mass of a planet or satellite. In one complete rotation, the planet material keeps deforming and relaxing. This takes energy away from the rotation, transforming it into heat Earth s rotation 45

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48 Rotation Axis: Lunisolar Precession Because of the gravitational tidal forces of the Moon and Sun, the Earth s spin axis precesses westward around the normal to the ecliptic at a rate of 1.4/century. The Earth's axis sweeps out a cone of 23.5 degrees in years. ω E F: dominant force on the spherical mass. ecliptic f 2 f 1 F f 1, f 2 : forces due to the bulging sides; f 1 > f 2, which implies a net clockwise moment Earth s rotation 48

49 Rotation Axis: Lunisolar Precession Competition between two effects: 1. Gyroscopic stiffness of the spinning Earth (maintain orientation in inertial space). T=26000 years 2. Gravity gradient torque (pull the equatorial bulge into the plane of the ecliptic) Earth s rotation 49

50 Rotation Axis: Nutation The obliquity of the Earth varies with a maximum amplitude of over a period of 18.6 years. This nutation is caused by the precession of the Moon s orbital nodes. They complete a revolution in 18.6 years Earth s rotation 50

51 Yet Another Disturbance: Polar Motion Movement of Earth s rotation axis across its surface. Difference between the instantaneous rotational axis and the conventional international origin (CIO a conventionally defined reference axis of the pole's average location over the year 1900). The drift, about 20 m since 1900, is partly due to motions in the Earth's core and mantle, and partly to the redistribution of water mass as the Greenland ice sheet melts Earth s rotation 51

52 Yet Another Disturbance: Polar Motion CIO: fixed with respect to the surface of the Earth CEP: periodic motion (celestial ephemeris pole) Earth s rotation 52

53 Graphically Polar motion Earth s rotation 53

54 What is Your Conclusion? We cannot trust the Earth s rotation the length of one second of UT1 is not constant! Its offset from atomic time is continually changing in a not completely predictable way Earth s rotation 54

55 International Atomic Time (TAI) Since the advent of atomic time in 1955 there has been a steady transition from reliance on the Earth's rotation to the use of atomic time as the standard for the SI unit of duration (second). The second is the duration of cycles of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of 133 Cs. Weighted average of the time kept by about 300 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide Atomic time 55

56 Atomic Clocks: Stability and Accuracy The caesium clock has high accuracy and good long-term stability. The hydrogen maser has the best stability for periods of up to a few hours Atomic time 56

57 Is Atomic Time the Adequate Solution? No connection with the motion of the sun across the sky! Atomic time 57

58 Physical and Astronomical Times Astronomical clocks: Related to everyday life. Not consistent; the length of one second of UT is not constant. Typical accuracies ~10-8. Atomic clocks: Consistent. Typical accuracies ~ Not related to everyday life. If no adjustment is made, then within a millennium, local noon (i.e., the local time associated with the Sun s zenith position) would occur at 13h00 and not 12h Coordinated universal time 58

59 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) The good practical compromise between atomic and universal times: it is the international standard on which civil time is based. Its time interval corresponds to atomic time TAI: It is accurate. Its epoch differs by no more than 0.9 sec from UT1: The mean sun is overhead on the Greenwich meridian at noon Coordinated universal time 59

60 Leap Seconds Leap seconds were introduced in 1971 to reconcile astronomical time, which is based on the rotation of the Earth, and physical time, which can be measured with great accuracy using atomic clocks. Leap seconds are introduced to account for the fact that the Earth currently runs slow at 2 milliseconds per day and they ensure that the Sun continues to be overhead on the Greenwhich meridian at noon to within 1s Coordinated universal time 60

61 Le Soir Article Coordinated universal time 61

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64 DUT1 =UT1-UTC <0.9s Coordinated universal time 64

65 Leap Seconds: Pros and Cons This is currently the subject of intense debate (UT vs. TAI; i.e., UK vs. France). + Abandoning leap seconds would break sundials. In thousands of years, 16h00 would occur at 03h00. The British who have to wake up early in the morning to have tea Astronomers - Leap seconds are a worry with safety-critical real-time systems (e.g., air-traffic control GPS' internal atomic clocks race ahead of UTC) Coordinated universal time 65

66 Yet More Time Systems! GPS time: running ahead of UTC but behind TAI (it was set in 1980 based on UTC, but leap seconds were ignored since then). Time standards for planetary motion calculations: Terrestrial dynamic time: tied to TAI but with an offset of s to provide continuity with ephemeris time. Barycentric dynamic time: similar to TDT but includes relativistic corrections that move the origin of the solar system barycenter Coordinated universal time 66

67 IAU2000: determined from the Earth Rotation Angle

68 Further Reading on the Course Web Site Coordinated universal time 68

69 Julian Date The Julian day number is the number of days since noon January 1, 4713 BC Continuous time scale and no negative dates. For historical reasons, the Julian day begins at noon, and not midnight, so that astronomers observing the heavens at night do not have to deal with a change of date. The number of days between two events is found by subtracting the Julian day of one from that of the other Julian date 69

70 Forward Computation Conversion from conventional time (YYYY, MM, DD, hh:mm:ss.ss) to Julian Date: 7 MM +9 JD 367. YYYY floor floor 4 YYYY M 1 1 ss floor DD mm hh Valid for the period 1 st March 1900 and 28 th February Julian date 70

71 Backward Computation Julian date 71

72 Matlab Example 12 May 2004 at 14:45:30 UTC: days Julian date 72

73 Computation of Elapsed Time Find the elapsed time between 4 October 1957 at 19:26:24 UTC and 12 May 2004 at 14:45:30 UTC 4 October 1957 at 19:26:24 UTC: days 12 May 2004 at 14:45:30 UTC: days The elapsed time is days Julian date 73

74 Standard Epoch Used Today: J2000 To lessen the magnitude of the Julian date, a constant offset can be introduced. A different reference epoch 1 st January 2000 at noon is used: J2000 JD Julian date 74

75 Remarks Typically, a 64-bit floating point (double precision) variable can represent an epoch expressed as a Julian Date to about 1 millisecond precision. Leap seconds and Julian day? Leap seconds are not taken into account. Therefore calculations made for Julian Dates where a leap second is inserted will be inaccurate by up to one second. Since leap seconds are only inserted at midnight UTC, they will always occur at the middle of a Julian Day. Julian Date calculator: Julian date 75

76 3. The Orbit in Space and Time 3.1 ORBITAL POSITION AS A FUNCTION OF TIME Kepler s equation Orbit propagation 3.2 TIME SYSTEMS Clocks Universal time Earth s motion Atomic time Coordinated universal time Julian date 76

77 Astrodynamics (AERO0024) 3A. The Orbit in Space and Time Gaëtan Kerschen Space Structures & Systems Lab (S3L)