Technology. Volume 21. Subvolume. Part

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1 Landolt-Börnstein Numerical Dataa and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology New Series / Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen Group I: Elementary Particles, Nuclei and Atoms Volume 21 Elementary Particles Subvolume B Detectors for Particles and Radiation Part 2 Systems and Applications R. Battiston, T. Behnke, J. Blümer, J. Engler, D. Froidevaux H. Hillemanns, G. Kramberger, J.-M. Le Goff, P. Lecoq K. Pretzl, C. Spiering Edited by C.W. Fabjan and H. Schopper

2 ISSN (Elementary Particles, Nuclei and Atoms) ISBN Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik, Neue Serie Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen Vol. I/21B2: Editors: C.W. Fabjan, H. Schopper At head of title: Landolt-Börnstein. Added t.p.: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology. Tables chiefly in English. Intended to supersede the Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen by H. Landolt and R. Börnstein of which the 6th ed. began publication in 1950 under title: Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik. Vols. published after v. 1 of group I have imprint: Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag Includes bibliographies. 1. Physics--Tables. 2. Chemistry--Tables. 3. Engineering--Tables. I. Börnstein, R. (Richard), II. Landolt, H. (Hans), III. Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. IV. Title: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology. QC ' This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution act under German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springeronline.com Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Product Liability: The data and other information in this handbook have been carefully extracted and evaluated by experts from the original literature. Furthermore, they have been checked for correctness by authors and the editorial staff before printing. Nevertheless, the publisher can give no guarantee for the correctness of the data and information provided. In any individual case of application, the respective user must check the correctness by consulting other relevant sources of information. Cover layout: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg Typesetting: Authors and Redaktion Landolt-Börnstein, Heidelberg SPIN: / Printed on acid-free paper

3 Editors C.W. Fabjan Vienna University of Technology and HEPHY, Austrian Academy of Sciences Nikolsdorfer Gasse Wien, Austria H. Schopper CERN CH-1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland Contributors R. Battiston Dipartimento di Fisica Università di Perugia Via Pascoli snc Perugia, Italy Space Borne Experiments T. Behnke DESY-FLC Notketrasse Hamburg, Germany Future Developments of Detectors J. Blümer Institut für Kernphysik Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany johannes.bluemer@ik.fzk.de Atmospheric Cosmic Ray Detectors J. Engler Institut für Kernphysik Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany joachim.engler@ik.fzk.de Atmospheric Cosmic Ray Detectors D. Froidevaux CERN, PH Department CH-1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland Daniel.Froidevaux@cern.ch Integration of Detectors Into a Large Experiment: Examples From ATLAS and CMS H. Hillemanns CERN DG-KTT (Knowledge & Technology Transfer) CH-1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland Hartmut.Hillemanns@cern.ch Instrumentation for Applied Physics and Industrial Applications G. Kramberger Jozef Stefan Institute Department F9 Experimental Particle Physics Jamova Ljubljana, Slovenia gregor.kramberger@ijs.si Solid State Detectors for High Radiation Environments J.-M. Le Goff CERN, DG Department CH-1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland Jean-Marie.Le.Goff@cern.ch Instrumentation for Applied Physics and Industrial Applications

4 VI Contributors P. Lecoq CERN, PH Department CH-1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland Detectors in Medicine and Biology K. Pretzl Albert Einstein Center for Fundamental Physics Laboratory for High Energy Physics (LHEP) University of Bern Sidlerstr Bern, Switzerland pretzl@lhep.unibe.ch Cryogenic Detectors C. Spiering DESY Platanenallee Zeuthen, Germany christian.spiering@desy.de Neutrino Detectors under Water and Ice Landolt-Börnstein Springer Tiergartenstr Heidelberg, Germany fax: +49 (6221) redaktion.landolt-boernstein@springer.com Internet

5 Preface Landolt-Börnstein Series has become known as a compilation of numerical data and functional relations. With the aim to extend the purpose and to modernize the series some volumes have been published already in the past which went beyond this limited objective and provided a more comprehensive summary of a special field. As a further step in this direction the Volume I/21 will provide in the style of an encyclopedia a summary of the results of particle physics and the methods and instruments to obtain this information. In Subvolume I/21A the theoretical and experimental results of particle physics have been reported. This Subvolume I/21B will deal with detectors and data handling and Subvolume I/21C will be devoted to the technology of accelerators and colliders. During the past decade an enormous progress was achieved as far as the development of new detection methods of charged and neutral particles as well as photons are concerned. These achievements became necessary in view of the requirements for new particle colliders, in particular the LHC at CERN, but also for non-accelerator experiments. The new detection methods found also numerous applications outside particle physics. It was possible to find very outstanding authors for the various chapters guaranteeing that the different sub-fields are summarized in a most competent way. We wish to warmly thank them for their efforts and patience. Thanks are also due to the members of the Landolt- Börnstein editorial staff who have made major contributions to the successful production of this volume. Recently the Editor-in-Chief of Landolt-Börnstein Series, Prof. W. Martienssen, passed away. In recognition for his achievements we would like to dedicate this volume to his memory. Geneva, April 2010 The Editors

6 Contents Subvolume I/21B1: Chapters 1-4 Subvolume I/21B2: Chapters 5-8 The following Chapters are contained in Subvolume I/21B1 1 Introduction... I/21B1 2 The Interaction of Radiation with Matter... I/21B1 3 Particle Detectors and Detector Systems... I/21B1 4 Data Treatment and Analysis Methods... I/21B1 The following Chapters are contained in the present Subvolume I/21B2 5 Integration of Detectors Into a Large Experiment: Examples From ATLAS and CMS (D. FROIDEVAUX) Introduction The context The main initial physics goals of ATLAS and CMS at the LHC A snapshot of the current status of the ATLAS and CMS experiments Overall detector concept and magnet systems Overall detector concept Magnet systems Radiation levels Lessons learned from the construction experience Time-scales, project phases and schedule delays Physicists and engineers: how to strike the right balance? International and distributed: a strength or a weakness? A well integrated and strong Technical Co-ordination team Inner tracking system Introduction Construction experience General aspects Silicon-strip and straw tube trackers Pixel detectors Calorimeter system General considerations Performance requirements General features of electromagnetic calorimetry General features of hadronic calorimetry Construction experience and measured performance in test beam Muon spectrometer system General considerations Muon chamber types Muon chamber alignment and B-field reconstruction Alignment Construction experience and measured performance in laboratory and test beam Trigger and data acquisition system General considerations

7 Contents IX L1 trigger system Muon trigger Calorimeter trigger High-level trigger and data acquisition systems Data acquisition High-level trigger Computing and Software Computing Model Event Data Model Data Flow and Processing Software Analysis Model Expected performance of installed detectors Tracker performance Calorimeter performance Electromagnetic calorimetry Hadronic calorimetry Muon performance Trigger performance Conclusion Acknowledgements References for Detectors for Special Applications Atmospheric Cosmic Ray Detectors (J. BLÜMLER, J. ENGLER) Introduction Extensive Air Showers Ground Detectors Scintillators Water Cherenkov Detectors Muon Detection Hadron Detectors Emulsion Chambers Neutron Monitor Counters Detectors for optical and radio emissions Cherenkov Light Non-Imaging Cherenkov Detectors Imaging Cherenkov Detectors Air Fluorescence Fly's Eye and HiRes Pierre Auger Observatory Space-borne fluorescence detectors Radio Emission Early radio detections from air showers The LOPES and CODALEMA Experiments Shower Simulations Interaction Models Comparisons of Models and Data Overview of Cosmic Ray Observatories Outlook References for

8 X Contents 6.2 Neutrino Detectors under Water and Ice (C. SPIERING) Introduction Neutrino interactions Principle of underwater/ice neutrino telescopes Cherenkov light Light propagation Detection of muon tracks and cascades Cascades Effective area and sensitivity Reconstruction First generation neutrino telescopes The Baikal Neutrino Telescope AMANDA Mediterranean projects: ANTARES Second generation neutrino telescopes IceCube KM3NeT GVD Alternative technologies for higher energies Detection via air showers Radio detection Acoustic detection Hybrid arrays underwater and ice Summary and Outlook References for Space Borne Experiments (R. BATTISTON) Introduction: particle physics from ground to space The space environment The neutral component The thermal environment The charged component Space debris Types of orbits Space mission design The Qualification Program Vibration and shock test Environmental tests EMC tests Radiation hardness tests Design of a space particle detector Space borne particle detectors Magnetic spectrometers Particle Identification Gamma rays detectors Future space experiments Balloons experiments References for Cryogenic Detectors (K. PRETZL) Introduction General features of cryogenic calorimeters Phonon Sensors

9 Contents XI Semiconducting Thermistors Super-conducting Transition Edge Sensors (TES) Magnetic Sensors Quasiparticle Detection Superconducting Tunnel Junctions (STJ) Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detector Super-heated Super-conducting Granules (SSG) Physics with Cryogenic Detectors Direct Dark Matter Detection Neutrino mass searches Neutrinoless double beta decay Direct neutrino mass measurements Astrophysics X-Ray Astrophysics Optical/UV and CMB Astrophysics Applications Summary References for Applications of Detectors in Technology, Medicine and Other Fields Detectors in Medicine and Biology (P. LECOQ) Dosimetry and medical imaging Radiotherapy and dosimetry Status of medical imaging Towards in-vivo molecular imaging X-Ray radiography and computed tomography (CT) Different X-Ray imaging modalities Detection system Scintillators for X-ray conversion Photodetectors Scanner geometry and operating conditions Principle of Computed Tomography Design of modern CT scanners Future of X-Ray imaging Indirect detector with phosphor screen Direct conversion screen Single photon counting devices Single photon (SPECT) and Positron (PET) emission tomography SPECT and PET working principle SPECT PET Detector challenges for modern nuclear medicine Improving sensitivity and specificity Improving spatial resolution Improving time resolution Current and future technical approaches Conversion materials Photodetectors Highly integrated low noise front-end electronics Highly parallelized and intelligent Data Acquisition system (DAQ) Simulation software Image reconstruction algorithms

10 XII Contents Multimodality Need for a multimodal approach Outlook: towards integrated morphologic and functional imaging References for Solid State Detectors for High Radiation Environments (G. KRAMBERGER) Introduction High radiation environments Collider experiments Space applications Environmental applications Damage mechanism in solid state detectors and electronics Bulk damage Non-Ionizing-Energy-Loss hypothesis of damage effects Impact on bulk damage on detector performance Surface damage Impact of surface damage on device properties Detector technologies Design considerations Silicon detectors Effective doping concentration Annealing of effective doping concentration Defect engineering Control of space charge Electric field Charge trapping Generation current Alternative ways of operation D detectors - a radiation harder detector design Diamond detectors Radiation hardness Other semiconductor materials Silicon carbide GaAs GaN Amorphous silicon Comparison of charge collection for different detectors Radiation damage of monolithic pixel detectors CCDs Active CMOS pixels Electronics MOSFET Bipolar transistor Single Event Effects (SEE) Conclusions References for Instrumentation for Applied Physics and Industrial Applications (H. HILLEMANNS, J.-M. LE GOFF) Applications of HEP Detectors Fast Micro- and Nanoelectronics for Particle Detector Readout Fast Counting Mode Front End Electronics NINO, an Ultra Fast Low Power Pre-Amplifier Discriminator HPTDC - High Performance Time to Digital Converter

11 Contents XIII Medipix Lifescience Time-Based Readout Schemes for Detector Readout in Medicine and Lifescience Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Materials Science X-ray Diffraction and Scattering X-ray photoelectron Spectroscopy Homeland Security Dual Beam Radiography for Air Cargo Inspection Cosmic Muon Tomography for Heavy Z Material Detection Conclusion References for Future Developments of Detectors (T. BEHNKE) Introduction Challenges at Future Colliding Beam Facilities Experiments at Super-LHC Novel powering schemes Novel mechanical structures The Electron-Positron Linear Collider ILC Physics at the ILC in a nutshell A Detector at the ILC Particle Flow as a way to reconstruct events at the ILC A detector concept for the ILC Detector Subsystems Trends in detector developments Vertex Detectors: advanced pixel detectors Solid State Tracking Detectors: Strip detectors Gaseous Tracking Electromagnetic Calorimeters Hadronic Calorimeters Muon Detectors Triggering at the ILC Summary References for