2.5 Physics of the Universe, Astrophysics, Nuclear Planetology Dark Matter and Double Beta Decay Study Planetary Nuclear

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Maud Watkins
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1 Contents 1 Scintillation and Inorganic Scintillators The Phenomenon of Scintillation What Is a Scintillator? Survey of Scintillation Mechanisms Scintillation Radiating Centers Classification of Inorganic Scintillation Materials The Story of the Scintillation Materials References How User s Requirements Influence the Development of Scintillators User s Requirements for High Energy Physics Introduction Physics Requirements for High Energy Physics Experiments Scintillator Requirements for High Energy Physics Experiments Cost Considerations Crystal Calorimeters in the World Spectrometry of Low Energy γ-quanta. Non-linearity of Scintillator Response User s Requirements for Medical Imaging Introduction and Historical Background The Different Medical Imaging Modalities Radiation Detection for Security Applications Passive Detection Active Detection Systems Neutron Activation Analysis for Security Systems xi

2 xii Contents 2.5 Physics of the Universe, Astrophysics, Nuclear Planetology Dark Matter and Double Beta Decay Study Planetary Nuclear Spectroscopy Astrophysics Well and Mud Logging References Addressing the Increased Demand for Fast Timing Introduction Pile-Up Problem in HEP at Future High Luminosity Colliders Timing in Medical Imaging Theoretical Considerations on Time Resolution with Scintillator-Based Detectors Nonlinear Optical Phenomena to Detect Ionizing Radiation Introduction Observation of the Effect in PbWO 4 Crystal Generation of Prompt Photons Cross-Luminescence (or Core-Valence Transitions) High Donor Band Systems Intraband Fast Radiating-Absorbing Processes in Scintillators Quantum Confinement References Scintillation Mechanisms in Inorganic Scintillators Introduction Relaxation of Electronic Excitations Initial Stages of Scintillation Process. Track Formation and Exited States Thermalization Limiting Factors at Each Step of Energy Relaxation Creation of Electronic Excitations Transfer to Luminescence Centers Emission of Luminescent Centers Creation and Quenching of Radiating Centers Thermal Quenching Non-radiative Relaxation to the Ground State Thermo-stimulated Photo-ionization and Trapping Effects Charge Exchange Processes. Photo-ionization and Charge Transfer Charge Transfer Photo-ionization Impurity-Trapped Exciton Quantitative Description of the Scintillation Process References

3 Contents xiii 5 Energy Resolution and Non-proportionality of Scintillators Scintillator Energy Resolution Factors Influencing the Energy Resolution of Scintillation Detectors The Influence of Light Collection on the Energy Resolution Contribution of the Photo-Detector Quantum Efficiency Non-proportionality of the Scintillator Response Introduction Fundamental and Track Structure Contributions to Non-proportionality Influence of the Electronic Excitation Clustering on the Energy Yield and Resolution General Classification of Scintillator Yield Non-proportionality Light Yield Losses and Reserves to Improve Scintillators References Influence of Crystal Structure Defects on Scintillation Properties Scintillation Media Defects in a Crystal Change of the Optical and Luminescence Properties by Crystal Defects Scintillation Light Absorption by Crystal Defects Harmful Luminescence and Afterglow Low Background Problem Radiation Damage of Scintillators and Radiation Hardness Improvement Radiation Created Defects in Dielectrics Interconnection of Colour and Light Emitting Centers in Scintillator Radiation Stimulated Losses of Scintillator Transparency Radiation-Stimulated Losses of Scintillation Efficiency Approaches to Radiation Hardness Improvement Recovery of Radiation-Induced Absorption Stimulated Recovery of Radiation-Induced Absorption References

4 xiv Contents 7 Charged Hadron Radiation Damage of Scintillators Creation of Defects in Scintillators Under Hadrons Exposure Comparison of Color Centers in PbWO 4 and Lu 2 SiO 5 :Ce After γ-rays and High Energy Proton Irradiation General Properties of Damage in Crystalline Materials Under Hadron Exposure Phosphorescence Radio-Luminescence Induced by Radioisotopes in Heavy and Light Scintillation Crystalline Materials Material Selection to Reduce the Calorimeter Activation Under Hadron Irradiation References Crystal Engineering Phase Diagrams Phase Diagram of Continuous Solid Solutions Eutectic and Distectic Phase Diagrams Without Solid Solutions Eutectic Phase Diagram with Areas of Solid Solutions Impurity Solubility During the Growth Scintillation Crystal Phase Diagrams Single Crystal Growth General Considerations on the Crystallization Process Basic Methods for Scintillation Crystal Growth Bridgeman and Stockbarger Methods Czochralski and Kyropolos Growth Techniques Micro-pulling-Down Crystal Growth Method Modern Trends in Scintillation Crystal Manufacturing State-of-the-Art for Crystal Growth Activator Distribution in a Single Crystal Raw Material Preparation for Scintillator Crystal Growth Raw Material Purity Raw Material Treatment and Preparation for the Crystal Growth Special Atmosphere for the Crystal Growth Halide Scintillators Hygroscopicity Surface Deterioration Additional Melt Purification Non Stoichiometry

5 Contents xv 8.5 Thin Scintillation Film Deposition Halide Thick Films for X-Ray Radiography Thin Films for Micro-imaging Applications Thin Single Crystals for Micro-imaging Applications Light Collection Simulations Detector Shaping Optical Guide Light Shifters New Trends in Light Collection: Photonic Crystals References Examples of Recent Crystal Development Example of Lead Tungstate Crystal Development for High Energy Physics Experiments Introduction The Conditions of Scintillator Development for High Energy Physics (HEP) Strategy for the CMS Calorimeter Role of PWO Electromagnetic Calorimeter (ECAL) in the Discovery of the Higgs Boson by the CMS Collaboration at LHC PWO-II Scintillation Crystals for PANDA Calorimetry Newly Discovered Luminescence Properties of PWO Crystals Cation and Anion Mixed Scintillation Crystals Introduction and General Models Mixed Halide Scintillators Production and General Models Mixed Oxide Crystals Light Yield Improvement for Different Crystal Structures Scintillator Modification and Forbidden Zone Engineering Defects Engineering General Remarks Ceramic Scintillation Materials Introduction Production of Complex and High-Temperature Compositions Complex Garnet Ceramics

6 xvi Contents 9.4 Glass-Ceramic Scintillation Materials Introduction Lithium Silicate Glass Ceramics Barium Silicate Glass Ceramics New Generation of Halide Scintillators The History of Halide Scintillators Search New Rare-Earth Halide Scintillators Elpasolite Structure Crystals for Neutron Detection Specificity of New Halide Scintillators References Appendix: Conclusion Index

Inorganic Scintillators

Inorganic Scintillators Inorganic scintillators are inorganic materials (usually crystals) that emit light in response to ionizing radiation NaI is the protypical example Scintillation mechanism is different