Compendium of Quantum Physics

Transcription

1 Compendium of Quantum Physics

2 Daniel Greenberger Klaus Hentschel Friedel Weinert Editors Compendium of Quantum Physics Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy 123

3 Editors Daniel Greenberger Department of Physics The City College of New York 138th St. & Convent Ave. New York NY USA Klaus Hentschel University of Stuttgart Section for the History of Science & Technology Keplerstr. 17 D Stuttgart Germany Friedel Weinert Department of Social Sciences and Humanities University of Bradford Bradford BD7 1DP UK ISBN e-isbn DOI / Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: deblik, Berlin Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (

4 Preface Since its inception in the early part of the twentieth century, quantum physics has fascinated the academic world, its students, and even the general public. In fact, it is or has become a highly interdisciplinary field. On a topic such as the physics of the atom the disciplines of physics, philosophy, and history of science interconnect in a remarkable way, and to an extent that is revealed in this volume for the first time. This compendium brings together some 90 researchers, who have authored approximately 185 articles on all aspects of quantum theory. The project is truly international and interdisciplinary because it is a compilation of contributions by historians of science, philosophers, and physicists, all interested in particular aspects of quantum physics. A glance at the biographies at the end of the volume reveals author affiliations in no fewer than twenty countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Israel, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Indeed, the authors are not only international, they are also internationally renowned with three Physics Nobel Prize laureates among them. The basic idea and motivation behind the compendium is indicated in its subtitle, namely, to describe in concise and accessible form the essential concepts and experiments as well as the history and philosophy of quantum physics. The length of the contributions varies according to the topic, and all texts are written by recognized experts in the respective fields. The need for such a compendium was originally perceived by one of the editors (FW), who later discovered that many physicists shared this view. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of this endeavor, it would have been impossible to realize it without the expertise and active participation of a professional physicist (DG) and a historian of science (KH). We should not forget, however, that it was brought to life by the numerous contributions of the many authors from around the world, who generously offered their time and expertise to write their respective articles. The contributions appear in alphabetical order by title, and include many cross-references, as well as selected references to the literature. The volume includes a short English French German lexicon of common terms in quantum physics. This will be especially helpful to anyone interested in exploring v

5 vi Preface historical documents on quantum physics, the theory of which was developed sideby-side in these three cultures and languages. The editors would like to thank Brigitte Falkenburg and Peter Mittelstaedt for their initial work on the project. Angela Lahee (at Springer publishers) deserves our gratitude for her unwavering support and patience during the four years it has taken to turn the idea for this compendium into reality. January 2009 Dan Greenberger Klaus Hentschel Friedel Weinert

6 Alphabetical Compendium Aharonov Bohm Effect... 1 Aharonov Casher Effect... 3 Algebraic Quantum Mechanics... 6 Angular Momentum Anyons Aspect Experiment Asymptotic Freedom Atomic Model Atomic Models, J.J. Thomson s Plum Pudding Model Atomic Models, Nagaoka s Saturnian Model Bell s Theorem Berry s Phase Black Body Black-Body Radiation Bohm Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Bohmian Mechanics Bohm s Approach to the EPR Paradox Bohr s Atomic Model vii

7 viii Bohr Kramers Slater Theory Born Rule and its Interpretation Bose Einstein Condensation Bose Einstein Statistics Bremsstrahlung Brownian Motion Bub Clifton Theorem Casimir Effect Cathode Rays Causal Inference and EPR Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt (CHSH) Theorem Cluster States Coherent States Color Charge Degree of Freedom in Particle Physics Complementarity Principle Complex-Conjugate Number Compton Experiment (or Compton Effect) Consistent Histories Copenhagen Interpretation Correlations in Quantum Mechanics Correspondence Principle Counterfactuals in Quantum Mechanics Covariance CPT Theorem Creation and Annihilation Operators Creation and Detection of Entanglement Davisson Germer Experiment...150

8 ix De Broglie Wavelength (λ = h/p) Decay Decoherence Degeneracy Delayed-Choice Experiments Density Matrix Density Operator Diffeomorphism Invariance Dirac Equation Dirac Notation Double-Slit Experiment (or Two-Slit Experiment) Effect Ehrenfest Theorems Eigenstates, Eigenvalues Einstein Locality Electron Interferometry Electrons Ensembles in Quantum Mechanics Entanglement Entanglement Purification and Distillation Entropy of Entanglement EPR-Problem (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Problem) Errors and Paradoxes in Quantum Mechanics Exclusion Principle (or Pauli Exclusion Principle) Experimental Observation of Decoherence Fermi Dirac Statistics Feynman Diagrams...235

9 x Fine-Structure Constant Franck Hertz Experiment Functional Integration; Path Integrals Gauge Symmetry Generalizations of Quantum Statistics GHZ (Greenberger Horne Zeilinger) Theorem and GHZ States Gleason s Theorem Grover s Algorithm GRW Theory (Ghirardi, Rimini, Weber Model of Quantum Mechanics) Hamiltonian Operator Hardy Paradox Heisenberg Microscope Heisenberg Picture Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation (Indeterminacy Relations) Hermitian Operator Hidden Variables Hidden-Variables Models of Quantum Mechanics (Noncontextual and Contextual) Hilbert Space Holism in Quantum Mechanics Identity of Quanta Identity Operator Ignorance Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Indeterminacy Relations Indeterminism and Determinism in Quantum Mechanics Indistinguishability...311

10 xi Interaction-FreeMeasurements (Elitzur Vaidman, EV IFM) Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics Invariance Ithaca Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics jj-coupling Kaluza Klein Theory Kochen Specker Theorem Landé s g-factor and g-formula Large-Angle Scattering Light Quantum Locality Loopholes in Experiments Lüders Rule Mach Zehnder Interferometer Magnetic Resonance Many Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Matrix Mechanics Matter Waves Measurement Problem Measurement Theory Mesoscopic Quantum Phenomena Metaphysics of Quantum Mechanics Mixed State Mixing and Oscillations of Particles Modal Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics Neutron Interferometry No-Cloning Theorem...404

11 xii Nonlocality Nuclear Fission Nuclear Models Objectification Objective Quantum Probabilities Observable One- and Two-Photon Interference Operational Quantum Mechanics, Quantum Axiomatics and Quantum Structures Operator Orthodox Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Orthonormal Basis Parity Particle Physics Particle Tracks Parton Model Paschen Back Effect Pauli Exclusion Principle Pauli Spin Matrices Photoelectric Effect Photon Pilot Waves Planck s Constant h POVM (Positive Operator Value Measure) Probabilistic Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Probability in Quantum Mechanics Projection...497

12 xiii Projection Postulate Propensities in Quantum Mechanics Protective Measurements Pure States Quantization (First, Second) Quantization (Systematic) Quantum Chaos Quantum Chemistry Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) Quantum Communication Quantum Computation Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) Quantum Entropy Quantum Eraser Quantum Field Theory Quantum Gravity (General) and Applications Quantum Hall Effect Quantum Interrogation Quantum Jump Experiments Quantum Jumps Quantum Logic Quantum Mechanics Quantum Numbers Quantum State Diffusion Theory (QSD) Quantum State Reconstruction Quantum Statistics Quantum Theory,

13 xiv Quantum Theory, Crisis Period 1923 Early Quantum Theory, Early Period ( ) Quantum Zeno Effect Quarks Quasi-Classical Limit Radioactive Decay Law (Rutherford Soddy) Relativistic Quantum Mechanics Renormalization Rigged Hilbert Spaces in Quantum Physics Rigged Hilbert Spaces for the Dirac Formalism of Quantum Mechanics Rigged Hilbert Spaces and Time Asymmetric Quantum Theory Russell Saunders Coupling Rutherford Atom Scattering Experiments Schrödinger Equation Schrödinger s Cat Schrödinger Picture Selection Rules Self-Adjoint Operator Semi-classical Models Shor s Algorithm Solitons Sommerfeld School Specific Heats Spectral Decomposition Spectroscopy...721

14 xv Spin Spin Echo Spin Statistics Theorem Squeezed States Standard Model Stark Effect States in Quantum Mechanics States, Pure and Mixed, and Their Representations State Operator Statistical Operator Stern Gerlach Experiment Superconductivity Superfluidity Superluminal Communication in Quantum Mechanics Superposition Principle (Coherent and Incoherent Superposition) Superselection Rules Symmetry Time in Quantum Theory Trace Transactional Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Tunneling Two-State Vector Formalism Uncertainty Principle, Indetermincay Relations Unitary Operator Vector Model Wave Function...812

15 xvi Wave Function Collapse Wave Mechanics Wave Packet Wave-Particle Duality: Some History Wave-Particle Duality: A Modern View Weak Value and Weak Measurements Werner States Which-Way or Welcher-Weg-Experiments Wigner Distribution Wigner s Friend X-Rays Zeeman Effect Zero-Point Energy English/German/French Lexicon of Terms Selected Resources for Historical Studies The Contributors...871