Introduction and Objectives of the Research

Transcription

1 Chapter -1 Introduction and Objectives of the Research Part I: General Introduction 1.1 Introduction The research area is the Jonk river basin, one of the major tributaries of the upper Mahanadi. In order to assess the prehistoric potential of the river; four seasons of intensive field investigation was carried out in the western highland of Odisha and eastern Chhattisgarh. The basic aim of this research project was to undertake the micro-regional approach to find and study Palaeolithic sites in different geological contexts. In addition, the research has also aimed to understand the regional archaeological structures, prehistoric strategies and their adaptation to the local Quaternary landscapes and environments by analysing the different lithic assemblages and associated sedimentary contexts. The research carried out in the river basin resulted in the discovery of 15 Acheulian, four Middle Palaeolithic, 39 Microlithic, one Neolithic and three new Early Historic sites. In order to understand the region, the latest research methods, field archaeology, possible scientific archaeology and modern analytical methods were applied to comprehend the collected data. The thesis is divided into four chapters. The first chapter is divided into three parts; the first part discusses the research objectives and methodology, the second part introduced the region and briefly gives background information about the river system, environmental setting, geology, geomorphology, flora and fauna of the region while the third part discusses previous research and highlights the major lacuna and methodological considerations for further research. The second chapter of the thesis is presents the results of field investigations, settlement pattern, site formation process, river section description and the application of remote sensing to understand the geomorphology of Palaeolithic sites. The third chapter presents the detailed analysis and interpretation of collected data. This chapter is again devided into three parts, Acheulian, Middle Palaeolithic and Microlithic which discusses about the organisation of lithic technology and raw material exploitation and settlement pattern in the river valley. A discussion of the results and presentation of the conclusions comprises the fourth chapter of this thesis. 1

2 1.1.1 Reasons for selection of the Study area The study area is selected because of the following reasons. The study area lies between the Nuwapada hills range and the Chhattisgarh Plain is an important geographical part of western highland of Odisha and Chhattisgarh. The Jonk and its catchment areas must have formed an equally important region in the past due to its strategic location, geography and suitable geology for the prehistoric settlements. Pandey (1982) correlated the prehistoric cultural sequence of the region with that of neighbouring rivers and other tributaries of Mahanadi in order to understand the archaeological potential of the area. The area presently supports a population, some of whom still exploit the abundant wild plant and animal resources. Raw materials such as quartzite, limestone, quartz, chert, chalcedony, dolerite and others, are easily available in the form of river pebbles and cobbles and also in the adjoining hill slopes in the form of blocks and slabs. These must have provided adequate raw materials for the prehistoric settlers in the river valley throughout the Pleistocene period Aims and Objectives: The present work was undertaken in the specified study area for the pre-historic investigations with the following objectives: 1. The main objective of the present research was to locate Palaeolithic sites in their various geological contexts to develop a regional archaeological picture to understand the nature, occurrences and expansion of prehistoric settlements. 2. To understand the geology, geomorphology, and geo-archaeology of the Jonk river basin. 3. To locate and discern the prehistoric raw material exploitation 4. To develop an understanding of the lithic assemblages by analysing various means of statistical methods in order to understand the typotechnological and morphological variability. 5. To understand the inter-regional and intra-regional variability in the lithic assemblages. 6. To get some idea about the relative chronology of the Stone Age cultures in this region. 2

3 1.1.3 Methodology: The basic methodology followed for the study was to carryout field work and collection of information from several sources to understand the previous research works on the subject. The intensive exploration was carried out to find prehistoric sites followed by their detailed documentation. The lithic assemblages from these sites were studied by applying several statistical methods to comprehend the lithic variability, evolution in terms of typology, technology and stratigraphy. In order to understand the geology, geomorphology, land scape and distribution pattern, extensive use of satellite based imageries and remote sensing data was applied. Along with the Phd, two separate research projects were undertaken to understand the ethnography of Nuwapada district: a. Hunting- gathering traditions among the ethnic groups of Nuwapada district (Padhan 2008) b. Understanding Saora Tribal art and rock art of Bhimbhetka, Central India, an ethnographic approach (Padhan 2010, 2012). In order to understand the stone tool technology lithic experimental archaeology was carryout by making flakes and large cutting tools. Experimental archaeology was also applied for microlithic blade productions by using hard hammer techniques and its effect on different raw materials. However the experimental archaeology is not included in this thesis. The detailed methodologies followed are discussed in the respective chapters. Part 2: Environmental Background Various environmental factors such as climate, relief, lithology, and vegetation play a very important role in the development of any drainage basin. Watershed geomorphology helps in understanding the physical and hydrological behaviour of the river regime. The western part of Odisha and the eastern part of Chhattisgarh region are characterized by non-perennial streams, which actually are rain-fed rivers. They carry water only in the periods of rain and immediately after rain (annual seasonal monsoons), and water can be seen in the stream till the months of January-February. During the dry season which generally begins February onwards (and remains until the beginning of the rainy season), these remain dry. Clearly, watersheds with a higher proportion of area drained by non-perennial streams will tend to have lower soil moisture retention and water harvesting capability than those areas where 3

4 perennial streams pre-dominate. Each stream has its characteristic channel, based on the topographical obstacles encountered, as it seeks the `path of least resistance' in its journey towards the sea. Stream patterns may develop randomly on uniform soils, or in response to weaknesses in the underlying geology. In parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh, most of the drainage pattern has been structurally guided, and arises from the presence of hard underlying rocks, as well as pronounced zones of faults and fractures. In other words, the channel form is generally controlled by geology, the flow is confined within rock outcrops, and the channel morphology is determined by the relative strength and weakness of the bed material. Dendritic pattern is found in areas of relatively uniform geological structure in the river valleys. Trellis pattern usually develops on alternating bands of hard and soft strata. Rectangular patterns are common in areas with right-angled faults and/or joints, such as in granitic bedrock areas. 1.2 River Systems River Mahanadi The Mahanadi river originates in the Amarkantak plateau and drains the entire eastern part of Chhattisgarh. Raigarh, Bilaspur, parts of Raipur district, eastern Balaghat and south-eastern Mandala district fall within the Mahanadi catchment area. The portion of Mahanadi Basin located in Chhattisgarh is further divided into a few more smaller basins. The Chhattisgarh basin lies in the central districts, in the north are the Raigarh basin, Hasdo-Rampur basin and the Korba, and in the south is the Kanker basin. The Chhattisgarh Basin, formed by the Mahanadi and its main tributary Seonath, drains the central districts of Rajnandgaon, Durg, Raipur and southern Bilaspur, and is the most extensive and agriculturally rich region in Chhattisgarh. This river system collects almost all the rainwater of the basin and carries it to the Bay of Bengal. Most of the tributaries of Mahanadi join to from the western and northern side. The major ones among these are Maini, Kelo, Mand, BaroiandHasdo. Of these, the Hasdo is a powerful river and the second most important tributary of Mahanadi after Seonath. The river Jonk joins the Mahanadi in the northern side. The plains to the northwest of Seonath are entirely dissected by a large number of streams emptying into the main river. 4

5 The river Mahanadi becomes very wide in some regions and extends up to 1-2 km in the upper area. Its width is about 0.76 km in the gorge area, while in lower Mahanadi it is 3-4 km wide. In its upper part, the width of the river has a flat bed and low banks. The geomorphological character of the rivers suggests that they were over-loaded. The river has frequently turbulent and torrential floods of height intensity due to which river bank has been eroded and show less alluviation along the main rivers whereas a heavy blanket of alluvium has been piled up along the tributaries. The different types of land surfaces, elevations, aggradation and erosional surfaces are characteristic features of eastern Indian rivers. These are caused by tectonic movements or climatic fluctuations, such as active monsoons or weak monsoon or may be because of the kind of sediments it is carrying from its source area. Mahanadi river and its catchments are characterized by Precambrian granites, gneisses and schists of the Eastern Ghats, with local basic intrusive and volcanic lithologies; limestones, sandstones, and shales of the Gondwanas; and recent deltaic alluvium deposits at the river mouths on the Bay of Bengal (Chakrapani and Subramanian, 1990a). It has been estimated, for example, that in the Mahanadi River basin, the general lithology consists of 56% Precambrian rocks, 22% sandstone and shale of the Upper Gondwana, 17% limestone and shale of the Lower Gondwana, and 5% coastal alluvium (Chakrapani and Subramanian, 1990a). The central Chhattisgarh basin is characterised by two major landform types, the gently sloping Chhattisgarh Plain and the undulating rim land. The elevation of the plains ranges from about 250 m on the eastern margin to about 330 m in the west. The gentle gradient of the Chhattisgarh Plain is largely due to its geological structure with flat to gently dipping Cuddapah sedimentary formations. Around this plain, the land rises steeply in almost every direction except the southwest, where it merges gradually into the granitic and gneissic peneplain of north western Bastar district. In the east, the Chhattisgarh Plain narrows down into a corridor between the Raigarh Hills on the north and the Raipur Uplands on the south, through which the Mahanadi flows eastwards (Singh 1971). The south-eastern parts of the central belt, Nagri block of Dhamtari district and Garyaband, Mainpur and Chhura blocks of Raipur too are more rugged with higher gradient. Similarly, Pithora and Kasdole in the adjoining district of Mahasamund have a more hilly topography. 5

6 1.2.2 Jonk River System River Jonk River Jonk, a tributary of Upper Mahanadi originates from the Sunabera plateau (20 29'59.66"N; 82 26'35.08"E) in the Koraput district of Odisha at the altitude of 660 masl. After crossing rocky terrain, the river enters into the Maraguda Valley, which is now flooded by a huge water reservoir built at Dharmabanda, near the village Patora, (locally known as Patora Dam), as part of the Upper Jonk irrigation project. The Jonk River is a tributary of the River Mahanadi located in the western part of Odisha and eastern part of Chhattisgarh. The river flows north, and forms the inter-state boundary between Chhattisgarh and Odisha (Map-2). The river flows through the Nuwapada, and Bargarh districts of Odisha and Mahasamund and Raipur Districts of Chhattisgarh. The total length of the river is about 210 km. The river is fed by a number of small and big tributaries such as Silda, Bhandar, Kandajhari, Kolar, Machka, Chirar, Bagh, Bhuisa, Ama, Kantara, Karmel, Lamhar, and Maokha. These tributaries originate in the surrounding hills and plateaus and flow for distances up to about 35 km.the Jonk river passes through several mountain ranges of variable sizes throughout its course. The great Gandhamardan Hill and Jharband Hill are situated on the eastern side of the river. Just after the Jharband hills, there is a fault intersecting and separating the Jonk river basin from the Ong river basin. The river has a maximum width of 660 m at Seorinarayan, near its confluence with the Mahanadi. In the middle Jonk, its width varies in between 230 to 440 m. Some meandering points have maximum width where the river cuts into its older deposits. In the Nuwapadaghat area where the river is cutting the bedrock, its width varies between meters. In the lower part of the river, after flowing through a narrow rocky channel at the foot of Nawapara Hill, the width of the river progressively becomes wider after cutting through the bedrock zone and it joins the Mahanadi near Seorinarayan(21 42'43.42"N;82 34'34.03"E) at an elevation of about 234 masl. 6

7 Map: 1.1 Location of Study Area in the Map of India 7

8 Map: ISRO- Satellite image of study area showing the Jonk River in the centre in blue colour and district boundary in red colour 8

9 Map: 1.3 Drainage system of River Jonk 9

10 Silda Nala The Silda Nala originates from the Lodra Reserve Forest after crossing a distance of a few kilometers and joins Jonk near village Parkor. Here, it is locally known as Kharkharanala. The nala flow nearly 25 km of distance and has five sub tributaries. Two microlithic sites have been found near a seasonal nala carrying rain water during the monsoon and retain some water in its channel/bed until January. However, because of the Upper Jonk irrigation project, the nala now retains water throughout the year. The river has preserved a section of 1 m m at some places. Its upper part is mostly forested and the surrounding soil is red to brown in colour; from its lower part the soil is mostly sandy silty and grey-to-white in colour. Figure: 1.1 Elevation cross section of the Silda Nala Machka River The Machkariver is one of the major tributaries of the Jonk. The river originates from the Hatigarh Reserve Forest near the town of Bagbahara at the elevation of nearly 330 meters and flows up to 35 km distance from its source area. The river is a little different in nature from other tributaries of Jonk as it does not carry much sand and the river has exposed a significant section in the lower Machka. Two microlithic sites are found on the river at Chuhia and Jagdala. The river has an elevation gain/loss of m and the maximum slope is 5.7% to 4.6 % and average slope is %. Figure: 1.2 Elevation cross section of the Machka River 10

11 Plate: 1.1: Lower Machka river section near to its confluence point Kandajhari Nala Having a total distance of 11.2 km, the Kandajharinala originates from the hills of Teka Reserve Forest. Three nalas comes from different parts of the Taka forest and join together near Darbekera and from there it is known as Kandajhari Nala. The river carry a lot of sand from its source area. The river section is mostly sandy, flat and at some places sections are preserved upto 1-2 meter in height. The river section is devoid of any gravel or artefacts and the soil is very loose and pale yellow in colour; clay can be observed at the bottom-most layer at some places near to its confluence. Figure: 1.3 Elevation cross section of Kandajhari Nala 11

12 Map: 1.4 Topographic map of Kandajhri Nala Bagh The Bagh River is a non-perennial rain-fed stream. It carries water immediately after the rains and water can be seen on the stream only until January-February. The river has its origin from the Rampur Reserve Forest part of the Nuwapara hills range near village Rampur, and forms one of the major tributaries of the Jonk. On the upper stream, the river is known as Sukha Nala and it joins with Muraidhowa Nala; from near Pithora the river is known as Bagh River. After crossing a distance of about 35 km, the river joins the Jonk near the village Chikhli. The river has alluvium deposits on both banks and carries lot of sand from the granitic hills which suggest that the granitic hills are weathered and release sand. Both banks are mostly sandy in nature and the river silt can only be seen after m away from the river. However, on its upper part, the river is narrow and has preserved sections of 1-2 m at some places. The river is seasonal and during the monsoon and post monsoon (up to December), water flows continuously and then the river remains dry throughout the summer. The river is wide in some places such as in the middle and lower parts, which have m channel width, but it has a narrow confluence. Bagh is 61 m wide at its confluence. 12

13 Kantara The Kantara Nala forms one of the major tributaries of Jonk which joins into the left side of the river. The nala has its origin from the Kantara Nala Reserve Forest. On its upper part, the nala flows through rock and a narrow channel, and starts widening just near the Kurkuti Village. The nala has got 16 small streams most of which join in the left side of the nala. The Kantaranala joins into the Jonk near the RikoKalan village. Throughout its course the nala carries a lot of granitic sand. Because of thick alluvium cover near the present nala bed, only Holocene deposits can be observed. Due to its strategic location, repeated explorations were conducted on the bank and hill slope on around but the investigator did not come across any cultural material. Map: 1.5 Topographic map of Kantara Nala Karmel Karmel is one of the biggest tributaries of the Jonk which flows more than 40 km from its source area. The Nala has its origin from the Bagmala Protected Forest and the Purshottampur Protected Forest. The Karmel Nala is joined by seven other small tributaries. Pandripani Nala and Chhipri Nala are the two bigger and important nalas of Karmel. After crossing the mountainous tract, the nala joins into the Jonk river near the village Karmel. Two Early Historic fortified sites are located in the Karmel valley. The site Ghargaon lies on the upper Karmel, which is a rectangular mud-fortified site and the second fortified site, located near its confluence at Narega, is a circular mudfortified site. No Palaeolithic sites have been found on the vicinity of this nala. 13

14 Figure: 1.4 Elevation cross section of Karmel Nala Natal Nala The nala originates at an elevation of 380 AMSL from the Murpat Reserved Forest near the Khurdodih. The nala flows up to 13 km distance and joins its mother river near the village Khalna. The stream has an elevation gain loss m and the average slope is in between %. Rock weathering is noticed at some places near to the nala bank. The rapid change in temperature during the summer from hot days to cold and the humid climate lead weathering of the granite rocks. Map: 1.6Location of Natal Nala within Google Earth image with elevation cross section 1.3 Climate The climate of Nuwapara, Mahasamund and Raipur districts is monsoonal and is characterised by the a hot summer with high humidity and well distributed rains during the monsoon. Rain starts during mid- June and the study area falls within the hot and moist climatic belt with an average annual rainfall of mm. Occasional heavy rainfall in 14

15 some years leads to floods which forces the villagers to shift to a higher elevated areas near the river. Generally the wettest months are July-September. The relative humidity is high during the south-western monsoon and post monsoon period. The cold season starts from November, and December and January are the coldest months of the year. Winters are generally cool and dry with temperatures ranging between maximum 28 C in the day falling to 6 C at night. Farmers of this area start the paddy harvest during this winter season. The region experiences a hot summer every year (from March to mid -June) and temperature as high as 48 C have been recorded in this area. The air becomes gradually dry thereafter and the summer comprises the driest months of the year. During the summer, most of the rivers and streams, small ponds and pools get dried up. Water is found only in the deep gorges along the river. 1.4 Vegetation The region is characterised by dry or moist deciduous type vegetation. By about the middle of February, it appears quite bare as most of the trees, shrubs and climbers shed their leaves. Scrub forest generally exists between open treeless cultivation and closed continuous forests. It includes flat grassland and paddy fields and a large number of Mahua trees, which are encouraged and protected due to their production of edible flowers. Elements of sal and teak interrupted by mixed type vegetation are the characteristic feature of this area. In some areas, tropical dry deciduous to semievergreen /evergreen types are seen (Basuet al. 1995: ; Gaursenet al 1995). During recent years, a rapid rise in human settlements with subsequent colonization of this area has resulted in the deforestation and conversion of natural forest into Savana/scrubland type forest. This has led to several changes in the soil property. The tribal people of this area exploited leaves, fruits, flowers, roots and bark of many forest species. A table of the commonly exploited species is given below:-- 15

16 16 Local name Scientific name Antamul Hemesdesmusindiacus Aonla Phyllanthusemblica Arjuna TerminilaArjuna Asan Terminilatomentosa Ashok Sarakaindica Aswatha Ficusreligiosa Athandi CombritumDecandrum Bahada Terminaliabelerica Barakoli Zizphus jujube Bel Aeglemarmelos Bija Peterocarpusmardupiums Bhalia Semepercupusanacardium Bhurkunda Hymenictyonexcelsum Bichauti Mucunapruriens Bnkapasia KydiaCalycina Bnkhira Xyliaxylocarpa Champa Micheliachampaca Champati Polyalthiacerasioides Chara Buchananialactifolia Charla Holoptelliaintergrifilia Devadaru Polyalthialongifolia Dhaw Anogeissualatiflia

17 17 Dom Sal MiliusaVelutina Eksira Schreberasweetenioides Gaisira Aspargusracemosa Gamhari Gmelinaarborea Gilo Entadascndens Girdhani Sterculiaurens GudiKoim Mitragynaparviflora Guhiria Acacia bucophace Harda Terminaliachebula Jam Euginiajambolanasynsyziginm Jautha Artocrupuslakoocha Jia Lanneagrandis Jinjal Barringtoniaacutangula Kadam Anthocephalus Kalmeg Andrographispanculata Kamalangudi Mallotusphillippinensis Karanja Pongamiaglababara Kasaphal Terminaliachebul Kasi Brideliaretusa Kath Kusum Garuapupinuata Kuchila Stychnosnux-vomic Kultha Grewiatilliae Kusum schleicheratrijuga

18 Lodha Maya Mohul Kendu Neem Phalsa Simuli Sal Sahaj Sisu Teak Symplocusracemusa Psidium guava Madhuccalatifolia Diospyrosembryopteris. Azadirchtaindica Buteafrondosa Cochlospermumgossypium Shorearobusta Terminaliatomentosa Delbergialatifolia Tectonagrandis Table: 1.1 Local and scientific name of flora found in the region 1.5 Fauna The forest of the eastern Ghats support a large number of wild animals, most of which are found in the highland of the Nuwapada district as well as in Mahasamund and Raipur Districts. The following table gives the details of fauna in the study area Mammals and Birds Animals Birds Local Name Scientific Name Local Name Scientific Name BanaBiradi Falischaus Kua Cervussolondus Bilua Canisaureus JangaliKua Cervusmaororhunch Hanuman Presbyis entellus Koili Andunamyascolopacea Barha Sus cristatus MachaRanka Pelargeopsiscapensis Bhalu Melursusursinus Kala Para Coulumbalivia Thekua Lepusnigricollis Hara Crocupuspcnicopterous Jhinka Hystrixindica Dahuka Rallusacvatious 18

19 Khuranta Bandicotindica HaladiBasanta Gvanopusasiotica Gadhia Hyaenahyaena Kopota Streptopeliachinensisscopoli Sambar Cervius unicolor Sua Psittaculakrameriscopoli Harina Axixaxix Baga Bubuliouscoromondos Bagha Panthratigris Titer Francolinussp. Krusnasara Antilopecervicapra Jangalikua Corvusmacrorhynchos Chita Pantharapardus Badudi Ptropusmedicus Mankada Maccamulatta Para Columba indermidia BanaKukura Cuonalpinus Harada Crocopusopeepicoptea Bajrakopta Vaulpesbengalenesis Gaur Bosgaurus Hati Elephasmaximusindicus. Godhi Varanusbegalenesis Table: 1.2 Local and scientific name of the fauna of the region (Mammals and Birds) Reptiles Ajagar Bamhunisapa Banded krait Conbra- Tampa Common aquatic tortoise Dhamana Domundiasapa Swa scaled viper Python molurus Natrixstolata Ranabungarusfasiatus Gokhara- Najanaja Kechugatectum Ptyasmuscosus Eryxconicus Echiscarinatus Table: 1.3 Local and scientific name of the fauna of the region (Reptiles) Fish The deep pools in the river beds, the tanks and other reservoirs also carry in them a variety of fish. Fishing continues to play an important role in the subsistence activity of the modern tribal people. Fishing is basically done by the Keut or Dhibarcaste who exclusively live on fishing; other tribes also practice fishing, however, in their leisure time as a secondary activity. They go for fishing in local streams, ponds and pools and fish either 19

20 communally/collectively or individually. Furthermore, people cannot rely upon fish always due to the drying up of springs and other water resources and the consequential absence of the fish. There are various types of fishing nets and bamboomade traps designed by the Konds for fishin. The rivers, ponds, and lakes in the study area contain varieties of fish. The aquatic food has high degrees of nutritional value as fish is rich in fat, vitamins calcium, phosphorus, iodine, and common salt, and most of these food values are also retained in the fish, which are sun dried and consumed later (Nagar 1982). There are varieties of fish found in the ponds, lakes and river water. Among the big fish are the Ruhi, Mircallly, Bhakur, Balia, Seul, Karpilish, and among the small fish are theputia, Thuro, Bairi, Jhani, Jarda, and among the prawns, chingudi;different species are found in fresh water. The following table gives a list of fish exploited by the tribes of the Nuapada district Crabs Fresh water crabs are found commonly in the hilly areas and in the paddy fields and also serve as one of the import items which is exploited during the rainy season in the study area Molluscs There are a variety of molluscs and bivalves found in the streams and pond. These are frequently eaten by the local people and their shells are also used as knives for removing the skin of many fruits, espeacially mangos. 1.6 Geology Geology is one of the most important aspects of any of the prehistoric studies to understand the resource utilization of the prehistoric hunter gatherers. The prehistoric man must have a good knowledge about the availability of the suitable raw material in the locality. Therefore geology plays an important role for the prehistoric studies. Rock formations ranging in age from Archaean to Cainzoic are exposed along the river valley. The oldest rocks in the area are represented by Eastern GhatSupergroup and Bengpal Group of Archaean age (>2500 m.y.). 20

21 Eastern GhatSupergroup is comprises various types of gneisses, khondalite, calcgranulite, maficultramafic granulite, Charnockite granulite, amphibolite (pillowed meta-basalt), biotite schist, quartzite and phyllite, and.magnetite quartzite. Rocks of Bengpal Group occur as remnant inliers within the BundelilDongargarhgranitoids and compromise grey granite gneiss, biotite gneiss and migmatite with enclaves of quartzite, amphibolite, banded magnetite quartzite, anthophyllite schist, quartz-mica schist pyroxene granulite, high grade metasediments and meta-gabbro. The rocks of Sonakhan Group of Palaeo Proterozoic age comprising meta-volcanics and associated meta-sedimentariesunconformably overlie the gneissic. Sonakhan Group is further classified into three formations viz. Baghmara, Arjuni and Bilari. Baghmara formation comprises metaultramafic, amphibolite, banded ferruginous chert, meta-rhyolite and tuff. Arjuni Formation comprises meta-conglomerate, metagreywacke with minor volcanics, meta-argillite with banded ferruginous chert and alternate sequence of meta-basalt and meta-rhyolite &metatuff. Bilari Formation comprises meta-conglomerate, meta-greywacke, meta-argillite, metabasalt with basaltic conglomerate and agglomerate, meta-rhyolite with dacite and meta-tuff. The volcano-sedimentary sequence of the Sonakhan Group is intruded by a large gabbroic complex of variable composition like peridotite, pyroxenite, anorthositic gabbro and gabbro (Source of information Geological Survey of India DRM Map). These formations are occurs in the form of outcrops, boulders, cobbles and pebbles of varying sizes. All most all the Acheulian artefacts were made on quartzite, rest are made on pegmatite, sandstone, quartz and banded chert. The water-worn river pebbles or flakes detached on them were used as blanks for the artefacts. Outcrop of dykes and veins are observed in the study area. Dyke of Meta Basalt, Bended chert, siliceous limestone, quartz and vein of quartz in the granitic zone is observed. Bedrock geology comprises quartzite, granite, sandstone and shale from upper Gondwana formation, most of which are capped in low lying areas by tertiary and quaternary ferricate and ferricretized gravels. Ferriccretes are found over the Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and form under a hot climate with strongly seasonal rainfalls. In the wet season, iron is 21

22 dissolved from the underlying bedrock, and then precipitated in the dry season as iron compounds. Gravels that are ferricritized have undergone the same process and are also rich in iron compounds. 22

23 Figure: 1.5 Lithology and stratigraphy of the Study area 23

24 Map: 1.7 Geological map of the Study Area (source; DRM Map Geological Survey of India 2004) 24

25 1.7 Geomorphology Physiographically, the study area exhibits mostly the landform of structural plains with structural hills and valleys, denudational slopes, denudational hills and valleys, pediments/pediplains and flood plains along the course of major river systems i.e. Mahanadi, Kharun and Seonath, Jonk and Hadso. The land forms in the area can be broadly divided into three physiographic divisions 1) Riverine plain, 2) the rolling upland, 3) the Hill systems. The mountainous tract extending almost to the entire western part of the Nuwapara district from north to south contains a broad plateau varying from meters in height, cut off from the plain below by range of precipitous hills (Senapati and Kuanr 1980:1-34). Geologically upper part of the river is surrounded by the Sunabera Hill Range, the river has its origin from the Rasdunguri and Gatibehera Protected forest, just crossing a few Kms from its source area, creating gorges and waterfalls and among them Baniyadas waterfall is 24 m. Gaudhas fall 45 in Gaudhasnala, Kharldhas fall 50 m in Jonk are important. Just after the Manikgarh protected forest the river forms the Maraguda valley surrounded by the Ranimal protected forest at the eastern side, the south eastern side is covered by Buraharas Parbat and Lodra reserved forest areas. Most of the part of Nuwapada Plain lies in east- west direction, which has fluctuating elevations between masl. The Nuwapada Plain is surrounded by hill and plateau containing a large variety of rocks. The plain starts just below the Lodra reserved forest, and it is surrounded by the Ghati Reserved Forest, Bosani Protected Forest on the eastern side, on the western side the plain is surrounded by Bundali- Kantangtarai protected forest and Beldihi, Sagaur Protected Forest. 25

26 Map: 1.8 Geomorphology map of the Jonk in Mahasamund and Raipur district 26

27 Map: 1.9 General Topographic Map of the study area (Google Map) Map: 1.10 Google Earth Satellite image of the study area showing important rivers and hill system 27

28 The upper part of the river Jonk is well known for the early historical remains. Maraguda valley which is well known for its cultural importance of early historic remains also is an ideal valley for the prehistoric habitation. The area is now submerged under the dam reservoir, constructed in the year The river can be divided into three parts, Upper, Middle and Lower. The upper Jonk covers the rocky and mountainous area of the Manikgarh and Ranimal protected forest, Lodra reserved forest upto Daharmabandha reservoir. The Middle Jonk can be considered from Nuwapada plain starting from the Dharmabandha reservoir to the Bundeli protected forest near to the confluence point of the Machaka river and on the right side it is surrounded by the Katangtarai- Protected Forest. The lower middle part can be considered from Machka to till the starting point of the Nuwapara hill range. The Lower Jonk starts from Nuwapara hills range till the confluence point of Jonk at Seorinarayan. The upper Jonk is dominated by the upper level structural plateau of Proterozoic rocks and part of it is the lower level structural plateau of the Proterozoic rocks. When it comes down on the foot hills the pediment surface is dominating over the landscape. In the middle part of the river within the few km away some structural hills are placed on the landscape which creates the basin divide between the river Jonk and its sister/parallel river Ong. In the lower Jonk the river comes across the several structural hills and valleys of the Nuwapada hill range (Map:1.10).The banks of the Jonk River and its tributaries are covered with the flood plain deposits and at some places it is filled in with older river channel deposit. Three landforms categories are found clustered together and usually a landform that has been exposed to prolonged denudation tend to exhibit these types of residual features, namely, hummocks and rolling plains. An undulating topography is found in the southern parts of Mahasamund and of Raigarh districts. An extension of this undulating landform stretches southeast wards bordering the valleys and the level region of the central Chhattisgarh basin (Konhausera et al 1997:259) 28

29 1.8 Soil The genesis, type and distribution of soils in turn depend on genesis and distribution of different types of landforms. About per cent of Chhattisgarh is covered by soils that are coarse in texture. Much of the highlands and the ridges constitute coarse loamy to loamy sandy and skeletal loamy soils, mixed with pebbles and gravel, and areas such as rocky outcrops are devoid of any form of soil cover. The central plains and the intermontanecolluvial plains comprise alluvial and colluvial soils. About per cent of the state comprises the fine and clayey soils, and it is mainly concentrated within the central belts of the state in the Chhattisgarh sub-basin area. The older plains have heavy soils of clayey to fine textured soils underlain by kankar(hard) pan. The distribution of the dominant matasior sandy loamy soil in Mahasamund district is far more even. Alluvium is some places mixed with laterite gravels or pellets and sometimes with calcretic nodules. As a whole they are very loamy and rich in organic elements. Thus the soils of Orissa can be broadly classified into seven groups: red soil, laterite soil, alluvial soil, black soil, forest soil, hill soil and mixture of red and black soils Laterite soil This soil is a coarse-textured, red sandy-gravelly soil, found on upland tops and often in wastelands. Laterite is quite sterile for agricultural purpose, being low in plant nutrition. The laterite is thin and gravelly and not very retentive of moisture and is of little importance agriculturally. This soil is red brown or dark in colour heavily loamy to clayey in nature and retain moisture Red soil It is red loamy soil commonly developed in humid tropical climate. It usually does not contain laterite within the profile and are uniformly red in colour. Red soils are generally deep, medium textured, friable and well drained. They are moderately acidic and are neither rich in organic matter or in nitrogen. They are found in the Dhabha area of Bargarh district and red soil is also noticed at Dharmabandha in Nuwapada District. Some patches of red soil is also seen in the Bargbahara area of Mahasamund district. 29

30 1.8.3 Alluvial Soil These soils have variable characteristics and the colour may range from high grey and pale yellow to deep grey and the texture may be coarse sand to clay depending of the site formation process. Soil reaction is slightly acidic in nature. Alluvial soils are observed in limited areas of the river, in some places nearly around 300 meters of alluvial deposits can be observed on the both bank of the river. Besides, its major tributaries such as Machka and Bag have also accumulated a lot of alluvium on both of their river banks. The alluvial zone of Jonk and Mahanadi begins after crossing the Nuwapada range Black Soil This kind of soil contains high amount of clay. The colour may range from dark brown to deep black and texture may be loamy to clayey. The occurrence of such type of soil is noticed near the Sarbong bridge, river section at Beltukuri, and Girna. 30

31 Map: 1.11 Land capability map of study region In the study area, the lower Jonk is good for agriculture and most part of its mountainous areas are moderately suitable for agriculture and many parts of land with severe limitation of agriculture is only suitable for the forestry and animal grazing. Some hilly tract areas also have severe limitation of agriculture. 1.9 Populations and ethnic Communities The state of Odisha has a total of 93 scheduled castes and 62 scheduled tribes, out of these 13 tribes are declared as primitive tribes, also called as forest tribes. Chhattisgarh has a total of 43 schedules caste and 42 groups of peoples are declared as secluded tribes. In Nuapada district, the tribal population is about 35 % of the total 31

32 population. In Raipur District, the total number of Scheduled castes population is 72,296. Among them Dom, Ganda and Chamar are the dominating ones. The total ST population in the district is , and out of them following three are the most numerous, Gond is 121,142, Sharbar, 20,927 and Saora are 9056.The district has 22.1% permanent houses, 72.1 semi-permanent and 5.9% temporary houses. Jonk river valley and its neighboring area is home to several tribes such as Gonds, Halbas, Parjaj, Batraj, Kamar, Bhunjia, Saura, Bijhdar, Baigasa and Uraons. Of these Gondsare the dominant tribe in the area. Total population of Chhattisgarh as per 2011 census is 25,540,196. Among them the male and female are 12,827,915 and 12,712,281 respectively. In 2001, total population was 20,833,803 in which males were 10,474,218 while females were 10,359, (www. census 2011.co.in) Economy Since agriculture is solely dependent on rainfall, and there are rich forest resources, people generally find hunting and gathering as a supplementary activity for their livelihood. The gathering of plant and animal foods, hunting and fishing along the streams can be carried out through the dry months of the year. During the monsoon, a rich variety of green leafy vegetables and edible mushrooms are available in the forests. In the early summer season, nature brings a variety of plant foods such as wild fruits, berries and flowers, all of which are easily available and provide important nutrients. Big game hunting is rare because of the official government ban, but small game hunting is still commonly practiced.today, only a few scattered ethnic groups pursue the hunting and gathering way of life, and they often do so either by engaging in mutualistic cultural associations with agriculturalists and pastoralists, or by practicing horticulture or tending of animals (Behura 1990: 12-13). These hunters and gatherers are especially confined to economically and geographically marginalized places in Odisha and Chhattisgarh Language It is interesting to note that the Jonk river serves as the interstate boundary between Odisha and Chattisgarh states, but in Nuwapada district near Khariar Road and Dharmabandha and Sarabong, which are border towns, most of the people speak Chhattisgarhi (Laria) and few people speak Sambalpuri (major regional dialect of 32

33 Oriyas). But in the Sankra area- until the neighbouring area of Raipur, most of the people speak Sambalpuri rather than Chhattisgarhi. 33

34 Plate: 1.2: A- Gond men demonstrating traditional firing method, B- Children with fishing stick, in River Jonk near Beltukri 34

35 Plate: 1.3: A-Tribal men on his may during hunting deer with his bow and arrow in Patharpunji forest, B- Close up of Bow and arrow. 35

36 Part -III Previous works 1.12 History of Archaeology in the Jonk River Valley The first palaeoliths reported from the Jonk River valley are two handaxes collected by Singh Deo, (2000: 418) during his field visit to nearby Maraguda Valley in These handaxes are now kept in the Museum of Sambalpur University, Odisha. Pandey (1982) explored the river Mahanadi and its tributaries for his doctoral dissertation. Pandey s study brought to light the region s Lower and Middle Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic traditions in the Mahanadi (Pandey 1982: 72; 2002). Additionally, evidence related to the Middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic has been recovered from the Seonath and the Hasdo areas. Evidence of the Mesolithic culture was found in the Jonk valley. Pandey also looked into the various geological formations, soil cover, landforms and other works on the geoarchaeology of the Upper Mahanadi River and described several fluvial sections in the Mahanadi and its tributaries in his work. He described two river sections on the Jonk, one at Girod and the other at Arjuni (Pandey 1982, 1980, 1987). An important centre of prehistoric habitation had also been reported from the neighbouring areas of Bastar in Chhattisgarh (Cooper 1983) Prehistoric studies in Odisha: An Appraisal The history of prehistoric research in Odisha has previously been reviewed by Mohanty (1992); Mahanty and Tripathy (1998), Basa (1994; 2000; 2005) and Padhan (2006). Palaeolithic sites have been recorded since the 19th century in Odisha. Valentine Ball in the late 19 th century initiated prehistoric research in Odisha in a systematic manner. He is credited with being the first prehistoric investigator in the state of Odisha (Mohapatra 1962: 26). He collected a few artefacts from Bhursapali in Kuchinda subdivision of the Sambalpur district, Kaliakata and Harichandanpur near Talcher in Angul district of Odisha in 1875 and published a small description of the same in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Ball 1876: ). While the number of tools found was only four and description of the tools and the sites was sketchy, this work was of great significance as it brought the prehistoric sites of Odisha on the scene for the first time. However, Ball s work did not immediately 36

37 inspire others to take up similar research in Odisha. After him, it was only in that Acharya discovered some polished stone celts in Baidipur village, Mayurbhanj district of Odisha. Acharya and Worman discovered the site of Kuliana in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha in 1939 and subsequently Bose and Sen of Calcutta University also started investigations there. This work also included excavations at some selected localities at the site, results of which have been published in a monograph entitled, Excavations in Mayurbhanj (Bose and Sen 1948). The cultural correlates of this site included choppers, handaxes and cleavers. The site of Kuliana was not only the first excavated site in Odisha but also in India. Despite this historical significance, prehistoric research in Odisha is still in its infancy as no detailed work on any prehistoric site in Odisha appeared after Kuliana. The excavation at the site of Kuliana was followed by a number of explorations by Calcutta University in 1950s. These surveys brought to light a number of prehistoric sites inmayurbhanj district and the surrounding areas such asamisikara, Baripada, Brahmagaon, Bhuasuni, Buramara, Kalaberia, Kamta, Kendudiha, Koilisutra, Kuliana, Mundaboni, Nuaberi, Pariakoli, Patinja,Pratappur and Sandim. These sites are situated within a radius of around 30 km from Kuliana and are spread along the banks of the Burahabalang. These sites belonged to a single physiographical and cultural unit (Ghosh and Basu1969:234). At Kuliana, five important sections were observed: the surface layer was yellowish sediment and mixed with fragments of laterite and it is noticed that the proportion of the same increases along with depth. Underneath there was a very compactlayer in its lower level were the quartz fragments are very rare and devoid of any artefacts. In the exposed sections the lowest bed was of yellowish/greyish white clay, sticky in nature (Ghosh and Basu1969). Mohapatra (1962) made systematic surveys in the districts of Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh, Sambalpur and Dhenkanal bringing to light a wider range of Palaeolithic remains and discovering sites from Budhabalanga, Baitarani, Brahmani and Mahanadi valleys. He also made a distinction between the Lower and the Middle Palaeolithic on the basis of stratigraphic and typo-technological grounds. The stone tools of the early Stone Age collection of Mohapatara comprised of handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, cores, points, flakes and irregularly flaked pebbles. 37

38 Handaxes predominate in his collection and cleavers were strikingly few and scrapers were mainly found in miniature varieties. He suggested that this culture might have belonged to the tradition of bifacial tools in which flakes and pebbles form an integral part of the assemblages. Stratigraphically these occurred either in the coarse gravel at the bottom of the sections or in the loose gravel beds of the rivers, on the surface slopes of the hills or in the secondary laterite gravel quarries. (Mohapatra 1959, 1962, 1972, 1990). Mohapatra (1962) reported that stratigraphically the Middle Stone Age tools occurred in a layer of fine gravel above a layer of clay or red silt. These red silts distinctly separate the fine gravel from the coarse gravels yielding the tools of the early Stone Age. Scraper, borer, burin and scraper-borer were the regular tool types, and utilised flakes, nodules, cores and blades occurred in suitable proportions. These tools were manufactured on fine grained quartzite, chert, jasper, opal, or occasionally on chalcedony. After Mohapatra s work, in 1962, Thapar excavated the site of Kuchai located at a distance of about 8 km to the north of modern Baripada district (IAR 1964, 1976). The site revealed a thick (40-45 cm) occupational deposit and yielded Neolithic artefacts together with a coarse grit-tempered red ware and an orange-brown ware. The stone artefacts unearthed included rounded butt-end axes, facetted hoes, chisels, mace heads, pounders, and grinding stones. The lowermost deposit, composed of gravel mixed with greyish earth and loose laterite, revealed a microlithic industry of non-geometric nature that included blades, scrapers, points, burins, and flakes. Chert, quartz and chalcedony were the main raw material used for the manufacturing of these tools. No pottery was recovered with these tools. The discovery of this microlithic industry was not an isolated one as quite a few microlithic sites were reported during the late 1950s and early 1960s such as from Kaneha in Talcher subdivision by Ghosh ( : 36), from Baramandr, Bonaikela, Danguapsi in Keonjhor district by Mitra ( : 36-37), from Tel (and its tributaries) and from the district of Bolangir, Ganjam, Kalahandi by Raghunath ( : 27). In addition to these industries, microliths have been reported from Bolangir by Mukherjee ( :68).Ratha and Bhatacharya (1988) discovered a Lower Palaeolithic site, with handaxes made on pebbles, cleavers and a chopper element in the site, along the river Kharala near Kuchinda in Sambalpur district. 38

39 Tripathi carried out intensive explorations in the Tel basin in 1970 and reported the presence of 27 microlithic sites from the districts of Bolangir, Kalahandi and Sambalpur (Tripathy 1972, 1973, 1977, 1980; Tripathy and Mohanty 1972). In addition to the discovery of these microlithic sites, Tripathi (1980) surveyed the southwestern part of Odisha and reported the presence of three sites belonging to pebble-tool industry and flake industry. Thus, Tripathi s study also threw light on both the Lower Palaeolithic and Middle Palaeolithic cultures which correlates with the research carried out by Mohapatra (1962). Nanda (1984) carried out a systematic exploration between 1975 and 1978 in Indravati valley and brought to light a large concentration of Mesolithic sites (85 in total). The open air sites were located both on the top and, slope and foothills; and also on the plains and elevated waste land. The height of the hillocks varied from 10 m to 250 m above the general ground level. Offsites occurred uniformly in the range of one to seven km, from the main river course as well as its tributaries (Nanda 1984; 2000). Nanda also attempted to explain the occurrence of these sites by taking both ecological and ethnographic data into consideration. Nanda not only reported the presence of microblades in high proportions but also the predominance of backed bladelets both in geometric as well as non-geometric forms. In addition, Nanda (1984) excavated the site of Girla which yielded crescents as the most common tools in the assemblage. The microlithic industry of Odisha was generally considered to be non-geometric type before this excavation. However, this excavation changed the scenario and brought to light on the geometric type of tool assemblage. According to Nanda (1985:163), the proportion of finished and simple tools was almost the same in both the surface collection and in the excavated material. He found the proportion of flake tools was much higher in the surface collection compared to the excavated material. Ota ( , 1986) carried out a comprehensive survey of Mesolithic sites in Phulbani district of Central Odisha, which constitutes the eastern-most outliers of the Eastern Ghats, and fall within the Mahanadi river system. His explorations brought to light a total of thirty open-air Mesolithic sites. Most of these were located on the bank of the Bagh and Maharani rivers and also in the foothills. Ota also conducted trial excavations to understand the phenomenon of the Mesolithic culture in the region. He laid two trial pits at an open air Mesolithic site ( N, E) at Khomananta near the village Kalarajhuli, to comprehend the 39