FOURTH EDITION. Methods for the Study of MARINE BENTHOS. Edited by. Anastasios Eleftheriou

Transcription

1 FOURTH EDITION Methods for the Study of MARINE BENTHOS Edited by Anastasios Eleftheriou

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3 METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF MARINE BENTHOS Fourth Edition

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5 METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF MARINE BENTHOS Fourth Edition Edited by Anastasios Eleftheriou Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Crete, Greece and Department of Biology, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece

6 This edition first published 2013 C 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Third edition published 2005 C 2005 by Blackwell Publishing, Ltd. Second edition published 1984 First edition published 1971 Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing. Registered office: Editorial offices: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa , USA 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ , USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at The right of the authors to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Methods for the study of marine benthos / edited by Anastasios Eleftheriou, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Crete, Greece and Department of Biology, University of Crete, Greece. Fourth edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN (hardback) ISBN (emobi) ISBN (epub) 1. Dredging (Biology) 2. Benthos Research Methodology. 3. Marine biology Methodology. I. Eleftheriou, Anastasios, 1935 editor of compilation. QH91.57.D7M dc A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover image: Underwater photograph on front cover reproduced by courtesy of Thanos Dailianis Cover design by Steve Thompson Set in 11/13pt Times by Aptara R Inc., New Delhi, India

7 Contents Contributors Dedication Preface to the Fourth Edition Acknowledgements xii xiv xv xvii Chapter 1 Design and Analysis in Benthic Surveys in Environmental Sampling 1 Antony J. Underwood and Maura G. Chapman 1.1 Introduction Variability in benthic populations Appropriate replication 4 Appropriate spatial replication 4 Appropriate temporal replication Size of sampling unit Independence in sampling Multivariate measures of assemblages Transformations and scales of measurement Data-checking and quality control Detecting environmental impacts as statistical interactions Precautionary principles and errors in interpretations Precision and the size of samples Gradients and hierarchies in sampling Combining results from different places or times Conclusions 39 Acknowledgements 40 References 40 Chapter 2 Characterising the Physical Properties of Seabed Habitats 47 Andrew J. Kenny and Ian Sotheran 2.1 Introduction Remote acoustic methods for surveying the seabed 49 Background 49 Echo-sounders (single beam systems) 50 v

8 vi Contents Acoustic ground discrimination systems based on single beam echo-sounder 50 Swathe bathymetry Particle (grain) size analysis 63 Sample collection and storage 64 Sediment grade scales 66 Analytical techniques 68 Presentation and analysis of grain size data Other important sediment properties 81 Bulk and dry density, water content and porosity 81 Organic matter content 85 Chlorophyll 87 EPS carbohydrate 88 Temperature 89 Eh and ph 89 In Situ Sediment Characterisation Methods 90 Disclaimer 90 References 90 Chapter 3 Imaging Techniques 97 Chris J. Smith and Heye Rumohr 3.1 Introduction Acoustic imaging 99 Acoustic ground discriminating systems 99 Sidescan sonar 100 Swathe bathymetry Video 101 Underwater video camera systems 101 Lenses 103 Housings 103 Data transmission 104 Format 105 Storage media 106 Power supply 107 Video monitors 107 Illumination 107 Calibration and measurement Photography Carrier platforms 111 Diving 111 Drop frames 112 Specialised towed platforms 112 Remotely operated vehicles 114

9 Contents vii Autonomous underwater vehicles 114 Manned submersibles 116 Navigation and positioning of the carrier platform 117 Data acquisition and processing Special applications 118 Sediment profile imagery 118 Laser technologies 119 Application of medical technologies Laboratory imaging Image analysis Afternote 122 References 122 Chapter 4 Diving 125 Colin Munro 4.1 Diving systems 125 SCUBA 126 Remotely supplied systems 126 Breathing gas and supply systems Saturation diving and underwater habitats Data collection and recording 133 Slate or notepad and pencil 133 Voice recording 134 Image recording 136 Video systems Underwater site marking and relocation 144 General considerations 144 Air drills and underwater fasteners 147 Acoustic pingers and receivers Sampling methods 148 Corers 148 Suction samplers 149 Yabby pumps and slurp guns 153 Scrapers Other study techniques 153 Resin casting Survey methods 154 Manta tows 154 Transect and quadrat surveys 155 Plotless and rapid survey techniques 161 Fish survey techniques 162 References 166

10 viii Contents Chapter 5 Macrofauna Techniques 175 Anastasios Eleftheriou and Derek C. Moore 5.1 Littoral observation and collection 175 Position fixing and levelling on the shore Remote collection 181 Trawls 184 Bottom sledges 186 Dredges 189 Semi-quantitative estimates with trawl and dredge 192 Anchor dredges 194 Grabs 195 Box samplers and corers 204 Suction samplers 207 Other methods of sampling Working sampling gear at sea 211 Continental shelf 211 Recovery of lost gear Efficiency of benthos sampling gear 214 Dredges and trawls 214 Grabs 215 Corers 219 Comparative efficiency Choice of a sampler Treatment and sorting of samples 221 Initial treatment 221 Preservation 227 Subsequent sorting Data recording 230 Acknowledgements 233 References 233 Chapter 6 Meiofauna Techniques 253 Paul J. Somerfield and Richard M. Warwick 6.1 Introduction Sample collection 254 Intertidal sediments 254 Subtidal sediments 258 Secondary substrata Fixation and preservation Sample processing 264 Extraction 264 Sediment 266 Secondary substrata 270

11 Contents ix 6.5 Storage and preservation Sample splitting Examination and counting 272 Sorting 272 Preparation for microscopy 273 Counting 275 Measurement Biomass determination Cultivation of marine and brackish-water meiobenthos Experimental techniques 278 References 279 Chapter 7 Deep-Sea Benthic Sampling 285 Alan J. Jamieson, Ben Boorman and Daniel O.B. Jones 7.1 Introduction Sampling from research vessels 287 Deployment methods 287 Tracking, monitoring and positioning Collecting animals from the deep-sea floor 293 Trawling 293 Epibenthic sleds 296 Traps 297 Suction samplers Collecting sediment from the deep-sea floor 300 Grabs 300 Box corers 304 Tube corers 306 ROV corers Imaging the deep-sea floor 310 Imaging survey design 311 Photographic transects 312 ROV imaging 314 AUV imaging 317 Time-lapse imaging 318 Interpretation of images Biogeochemistry of the deep-sea floor 327 Benthic incubation chambers 327 Sediment profiling systems In situ manipulative experiments Future developments 333 Acknowledgements 334 Abbreviations 334 References 335

12 x Contents Chapter 8 Measuring the Flow of Energy and Matter in Marine Benthic Animal Populations 349 Jaap van der Meer, Thomas Brey, Carlo Heip, Peter M.J. Herman, Tom Moens and Dick van Oevelen 8.1 Introduction 350 State variables and units of measurement Energy and mass budgets of individual organisms 351 Ratios or efficiencies 352 Energy flux modelling Methods for estimating the energy budget of an individual organism 353 Mass, size, chemical composition and energy content 354 Ingestion, absorption and defaecation 360 Excretion 372 Respiration 376 Growth 379 Reproductive output 380 Regeneration 382 Product formation From the individual to the population 384 Secondary production Community-level measurements and modelling 396 Community-level activity 396 Community-level mass transfer 399 Community-level modelling 402 References 404 Chapter 9 Phytobenthos Techniques 427 Hans Kautsky 9.1 Introduction Phytobenthic communities 429 Guidelines for the study of phytobenthic communities 429 Data collection Overview of methods for sampling phytobenthos Transect line techniques 432 Overview of transect techniques 432 Recommended ICES method 433 SCUBA transect estimates (ICES method) 437 Video transect method 443 Continuous observation methods 443 Photo frames 447

13 Contents xi 9.5 Other underwater surveying methods 448 The manta tow technique 448 Diver-propulsion vehicle technique 448 Other underwater video techniques 449 Remotely operated vehicles (see Chapter 3) 451 Echo-sounding, sidescan sonar (see Chapter 3) Other surveying techniques 452 Satellite imagery 452 Aerial photography 453 Laser scanning techniques Conclusion 454 Appendix 455 Short review of methods used for monitoring in Europe and overseas 455 References 459 Index 467 Colour plate section 1 falls between pages 126 and 127 Colour plate section 2 falls between pages 302 and 303

14 Contributors Ben Boorman, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Thomas Brey, Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany Maura G.Chapman, Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia Anastasios Eleftheriou, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Crete, Greece and Department of Biology, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece Carlo Heip*, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Den Burg, The Netherlands Peter M.J. Herman, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Centre for Estuarine and Marine Ecology, Yerseke, The Netherlands Alan J. Jamieson, Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen, Newburgh, UK Daniel O.B. Jones, National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK Hans Kautsky, Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Andrew J. Kenny, Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Lowestoft Laboratory, Lowestoft, UK Tom Moens, Department of Biology, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium Derek C. Moore, Marine Scotland-Science, Scottish Government Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen, UK Colin Munro, Marine Bio-images, Colin Munro Photography, Exeter, UK Heye Rumohr, Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences, IfM-GEOMAR, Kiel, Germany Chris J. Smith, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Heraklion, Crete, Greece Paul J. Somerfield, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, UK xii

15 Contributors xiii Ian Sotheran, Envision Mapping Ltd., Newcastle, UK Antony J. Underwood, Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia Jaap van der Meer, Department of Marine Ecology, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Den Burg, The Netherlands Dick van Oevelen, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Centre for Estuarine and Marine Ecology, Yerseke, The Netherlands Richard M. Warwick, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, UK *Professor Carlo Heip of the Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, co-author of Chapter 8, sadly passed away just as this volume of the Handbook was in production. His contribution to marine science provided a great deal to our understanding of the marine environment. He will be greatly missed.