4.0 Billion Years of Earth Environmental Change. Extinctions
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1 4.0 Billion Years of Earth Environmental Change Extinctions
2 General Observations About Extinctions
3 In a system, you cannot change one thing without causing something else to change, Sometimes with unintended consequences We have seen many changes in Earth environments. 1. Atmospheric evolution 2. Climate evolution 3. Land vs water evolution Life has three choices during such a crisis. 1. Move to a safe environment habitat tracking 2. Adapt to new conditions 3. Go extinct a choice life has made with surprising regularity.
4 The Abundance of Life On Earth How many species have been named by science? 1.4 million - In his book, The Diversity of Life (1992), world-renowned biologist Edward O.Wilson says we know of approximately 1.4 million species on Earth give or take 100, million - The World Biodiversity Database, which aims to document all living species on Earth today, puts the figure at 1.7 million. How many species are actually living on Earth right now? 3.6 million up to million - Upper limit estimates, with 13 to 20 million being the most frequently cited range. How many species have lived on Earth through its 4 billion years of history? Estimates range between 5 and 50 billion, although this is even more speculative than the number of living species.
5 The Abundance of Life On Earth How many fossil species have been found and named by science? About 150,000 This means most species are extinct. Likely % of all species are extinct. Less than 1/1000 of all species are alive today. Average species lasts about 4 million years. If 40 million species are alive today then 10 species become extinct in an average year. Then again, the fossil record is very biased, biased toward... Organisms with skeletons Large organisms
6 The Abundance of Life On Earth Nonetheless, we have learned a tremendous amount from those fossil species. Many fossil groups have no living forms; without fossils we would have no idea they exist. Many missing links or ancestor groups exist letting us deduce ancestor-descent relationships. For example...
7 Labrynthodont Amphibians Eryops Labrynthodont
8 Pelycosaur (mammal-like) Reptiles Edaphosaurus
9 Dinocephalia Therapsid (mammal-like) Advanced Herbivores Reptiles
10 Therapsid (mammal-like) Reptiles
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12 Feathered Dinosaurs
13 Feathered Dinosaurs
14 Early Miocene Strange North American Mammals mya Grasses evolved and spread during this time leading to the rise of grassland animals with longer legs and faster running. Browsing dentition shifted to grazing dentition with higher crowns and resistance to the abrasion in the silica rich grasses. Giant animals such as Moropus and the giant (entelodon) pig. Camels, antelopes, and horses are abundant. camel rhino giant pig oreodont 3 toed horse
15 Early Pliocene Strange North American Mammals 12 9 mya The American grasslands support a variety of plains animals, including horses of many kinds, but also rhinos (dying out), camels, pronghorn antelopes, giant pigs, peccarys and shovel tusked mastodons. rhino mastodon rhino horse zebra camel pronghorn horned rodents
16 The Abundance of Life On Earth Nonetheless, we have learned a tremendous amount from those fossil species. Many fossil groups have no living forms; without fossils we would have no idea they exist. Many missing links or ancestor groups exist letting us deduce ancestor-descent relationships. For Then example Again... There are organisms that have been with us for a long time we are just discovering are strange.
17 Extremophile Archaebacteria Have been here all along, and it was not until about ten years ago we recognized they are a whole separate branch of life. Boiling hot springs in Yellowstone National Park are colored by colonies of thermophilic cyanobacteria, eubacteria and archaebacteria. Thermus aquaticus survives in temperatures too high for photosynthetic bacteria, up to 80 degrees Celsius (176 degrees F). Thermus aquaticus is heterotrophic and survives on minute amounts of organic matter in the water.
18 But, the truth is... Most life is extinctly dead Why?
19 Extinction
20 Extinction
21 The Varieties of Extinction Are all extinctions the same?
22 The Varieties of Extinction Fair Game Bad Genes scenario Selective extinction in a Darwinian sense, leading to survival of the most fit or best adapted species
23 Modeling an Evolutionary System Rule One - find the species with the lowest fitness and randomly change its fitness. Rule Two - at the same time the lowest fit species is changed, also randomly change the fitness of the species to the immediate left and right. Low fitness species go extinct. And some unlucky species next to low fitness species go extinct.
24 The Varieties of Extinction Fair Game Bad Genes scenario Selective extinction in a Darwinian sense, leading to survival of the most fit or best adapted species Field of Bullets Bad Luck scenario Random extinction without regard to differences of fitness Wanton Extinction Bad Luck scenario Extinction is selective but not in ways related to the ability of organism to adapt in normal times. Accidents of evolutionary history that make some kinds of organisms more susceptible than others to rare stresses. For example, if the Earth were suddenly subjected to a heavy dose of ionising radiation from space, all exposed mammals might die from radiation sickness, but all insects might survive because insects are less affected by high energy radiation.
25 Proposed Causes of Bad Luck Extinctions Proximal vs Exotic Proximal those that represent everyday sources of mortality, but some how at times become accentuated. Exotic do not kill off individuals and species under normal circumstances, but only during mass extinctions.
26 Proposed PROXIMAL Causes 1. Global climate change, especially drying and cooling. 2. Sea level rises, or falls changing the area of shallow marine environments or land areas. 3. Predation. 4. Epidemic disease (a kind of predation). 5. Competition with other species. Brachiopods replaced by clams? Dinosaurs replaced by mammals? Synapsids (mammal-like reptiles) replaced by dinosaurs?
27 Proposed EXOTIC Causes EARTH BOUND 1. Changes in oxygen concentration or other atmospheric chemistry. 2. Disruptions of supplies of food and nutrients. 3. Changes in ocean salinity. 4. Spread of turbidity. 5. Sudden volcanic emissions of either poisonous gasses or darkening dust clouds.
28 2. Intense cosmic radiation triggered by weakening of the earth s magnetic field. 3. Asteroid impacts. Proposed EXOTIC Causes EXTRATERRESTRIAL 1. Supernova ionizing radiation. 4. Invasions from outer space.
29 Strategy for Exploring Extinction Causes 1. Get an answer to the question of whether all extinctions are the same, with just natural variations in intensity. 2. Then, if all extinctions are not all equivalent: Which ones are background extinctions - those that go on all the time. Which ones are unusual, above background so called mass extinctions? Then of the unusual ones we must ask why they are unusual? And, are they fundamentally different from other extinction events?
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31 Is there a Difference Background vs Major Extinction The Big Five Extinctions And,... these real extinction events do not follow a normal distribution but a power-law distribution, and so cannot be understood with normal statistics.
32 Extinction Events Follow a Power Law Distribution Frequency of Event 10 7 A Power Law Lots of small events Size of Event Distribution Very rare large events
33 Are Mass Extinctions Different or Just Above Average?... But it is easy to lose site of the fact there are many other extinction events of intermediate size.
34 Mass Extinctions Are Not Above Average Because in a Power-Law there is no Average The biggest, easiest to see extinction events, commonly called mass extinctions, are the Big-5,...
35 Are Mass Extinctions Different From Background Extinctions?
36 Extinction Events
37 Cretaceous Extinction
38 Cretaceous Extinction 5th of the Big Five
39 Key Beds The iridium layer at the K-T boundary An analysis of the chemical composition of this clay layer shows that it contains a relatively high concentration of an element called iridium. Iridium is rare in the Earth s crust, but more common towards the Earth's centre, and in space. It continually filters down to earth from outer space, and so a high concentration of iridium is usually an indication that the sediment was deposited very slowly, absorbing lots of iridium over time.
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41 Extinction Because of Bad Luck Species Area Effects Asteroid Impacts
42
43 Extinction Because of Bad Luck Species Area Effects Asteroid Destructive Power
44 Extinction Because of Bad Luck Species Area Effects Asteroid Destructive Power
45 Extinction Because of Bad Luck Species Area Effects Asteroid Destructive Power
46 Extinction Because of Bad Luck Species Area Effects Asteroid Destructive Power
47 Permian Extinction
48 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction More than 90 percent of all species on Earth mysteriously perished during a mass extinction, perhaps within just a few thousand years. Trilobites became extinct; coral, bryozoan, and brachiopod species diminished. Land plants and animals were also impacted; amphibian species dwindled and fungi dominated some ecosystems.
49 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction
50 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction The extinction began with a massive volcanic eruption in Siberia that covered an area the size of Europe
51
52 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction The extinction began with a massive volcanic eruption in Siberia that covered an area the size of Europe This put large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere creating a greenhouse warming effect.
53 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction The greenhouse warming warmed the ocean waters, triggering a release of methane hydrate from the ocean floor.
54 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction Tubeworms and mussels on top of a hydrate mound. The yellowish methane hydrate provides a source of methane for the mussels living on top of them. A little further from the hydrate, we see lots of tubeworms growing. They may be connected to the hydrate too, since the microbes in the sediment that turn seawater sulfate into sulfide need methane for energy.
55 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction Methane Hydrate Production
56 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction As a greenhouse gas methane is 20 times more effective than carbon dioxide. Runaway Greenhouse effect by positive feedback processes CO 2 release heats atmosphere and oceans. Heating of oceans releases methane hydrate. Greenhouse effect of methane raises temperature of oceans even more, which leads to release of even more methane RUNAWAY GREENHOUSE
57 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction Atmospheric methane reacts with oxygen, leading to a rapid decline of oxygen concentration from about 30 percent to 10 percent The vertical, dashed red line marks the Permian-Triassic boundary. The green line indicates the level of oxygen; the dashed green line at left, its present atmospheric level (PAL). The grey line indicates the level of carbon dioxide; the dashed grey line, its present atmospheric level. Note how the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide declines, and the level of oxygen increases, with the rise of the forests during the Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. Note also how the level of carbon dioxide abruptly increases, and that of oxygen abruptly declines, at the end of the Permian and into the Triassic.
58 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction More than 90 percent of all species on Earth mysteriously perished during a mass extinction, perhaps within just a few thousand years. Trilobites became extinct; coral, bryozoan, and brachiopod species diminished. Land plants and animals were also impacted; amphibian species dwindled and fungi dominated some ecosystems.
59 Extinction Because of Bad Luck The Permian Extinction Marine ecosystems collapse
60 After the Permian Extinction But, some groups expanded into the vacant niches
61 After the Permian Extinction Like Dinosaurs Why did these animals thrive after the extinction?
62 After the Permian Extinction We can get some idea by looking at the only living dinosaur representatives... BIRDS Latex injection (blue) of the pulmonary system in a duck (Anas crecca), highlighting the extent of air sacs throughout the body.
63 After the Permian Extinction
64 After the Permian Extinction
65 After the Permian Extinction But, why then did mammals also do so well after the extinction.
66 After the Permian Extinction But, why then did mammals also do so well after the extinction.
67 Pleistocene MegaFauna Extinction
68 Ice Age Mammals Pleistocene Mega Fauna. Large mammals were more susceptible to extinction at the end of the last ice age.
69 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Bison latifrons Ice-age bison, such as this long-horned Bison latifrons, were twice as big as the bison (Bison bison) that live in South Dakota today. They died out about seven thousand years ago. Smaller bison took their place.
70 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Bison antiquus
71 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Bison antiquus Sabre-tooth Cats (Smilodon fatalis) hunting bison (Bison antiquus) near Rancho La Brea, California, late Pleistocene
72 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Cervalces scotti Stag moose
73 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Megaloceras giganteus Irish Elk
74 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Mylohyus nasutus Up to three feet tall, this swift long-legged peccary lived in Illinois long before the Ice Age and eventually was contemporary with early humans, possibly as late as 9,000 years ago.
75 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Camelops hesternus
76 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Mammuthus - mammoth
77 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Mastodon
78 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Platygonus compressus Flat Headed Peccary
79 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Castoroides Giant beaver
80 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Tapirus terrestrius Giant beaver
81 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Megalonyx jeffersonii Jefferson ground sloth
82 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Paramylodon harlani Harlan s ground sloth
83 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Nothrotheriops shastensis Shasta ground sloth
84 Pleistocene Megagauna Eremotherium laurillardi Laurillard's ground sloth
85 Pleistocene Megagauna Glyptodon
86 Pleistocene Megagauna Rhinoceros antiquitatis Woolly rhino: Europe and Asia but not North America
87 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Felis atrox American Lion
88 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Felis atrox American Lion With Mammuthus Mammoths (Mammuthus) and American Lions (Felis atrox) in the late Pleistocene of Alaska
89 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Ursus Giant short faced bear
90 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Ursus Giant short faced bear
91 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Ursus arctos Grizzly bear
92 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Ursus spelaeus Cave Bear fierce, 20-foot long versions of Grizzly bears with huge teeth and razor sharp claws
93 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Smilodon Saber toothed cat /
94 Pleistocene Mega Fauna Canis diris Dire wolf
95 Pleistocene MegaFauna Extinction Proposed Causes: Climate Change Between about 18,000 and 11,500 years ago the climate and environments of North America were changing rapidly. Temperatures were warming. Rainfall patterns were changing. The glaciers were melting. The seasonal difference in temperatures was increasing. These climate changes were causing fundamental changes in the ecosystems of North America. Plants and animals were moving out of areas they had lived in and into new areas. Communities were coming apart and reorganizing. Many scientists think that these climatic and ecosystem changes caused the extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene. The environmental changes might have caused extinction by eliminating food sources, disrupting birth schedules, or exposing animals to climatic conditions to which they were not adapted. However, similar climate changes have occurred at the end of each glacial event, of which there have been many dozens, and the megafauna survived all of those.
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97 Ice Advances and Retreats in the Past 350,000 Years
98 Pleistocene MegaFauna Extinction Proposed Causes: Hyper Diseases This theory was most recently proposed by Dr. Ross MacPhee of the American Museum of Natural History and Dr. Preston Marx of the Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center. It supposes that as human populations expanded into new areas during the Pleistocene, for example, into North America approximately 14,000 years ago, they brought with them one or more disease-causing agents. These diseases, new to the New World, jumped from human or animal carriers (for example, their dogs) to the highly susceptible large native fauna. These diseases, according to this theory, were sufficieintly lethal to wipe out the native animals.
99 Pleistocene MegaFauna Extinction Proposed Causes: Human Hunting Just after 14,000 years ago human migrants from Asia entered the New World. They may have been the first people to set foot in North America. They are known as the Clovis people. Their sites and artifacts, including distinctive projectile points, are found over much of North America. These people hunted and gathered wild animals and plants. The animals they hunted included many that became extinct. However, they also hunted numerous animals that survived.
100 Pleistocene MegaFauna Extinction Proposed Causes: Human Hunting Clovis spear points Just after 14,000 years ago human migrants from Asia entered the New World. They may have been the first people to set foot in North America. They are known as the Clovis people. Their sites and artifacts, including distinctive projectile points, are found over much of North America. These people hunted and gathered wild animals and plants. The animals they hunted included many that became extinct. However, they also hunted numerous animals that survived.
101 Paul Martin and the Overkill Hypothesis
102 Late Pleistocene Mural of Utah: 10,000 B.C. College of Eastern Utah Museum
103 Stuart Kauffman The critical point is not, as Stuart Kauffman once described it, a nice place to be. So survival of the fittest does not imply evolution to a state where everybody is well off. On the contrary, individual species are barely able to hang on - like the grains of sand in the critical sand pile. Maybe there is no cause to extinctions Maybe extinctions (avalanches) are just part of the dynamic of evolution.
104 Modern Extinction Holocene Extinction
105 Holocene extinction event is the widespread, ongoing mass extinction of species during the past several thousand years. The large number of extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals including mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and arthropods; a sizeable fraction of these extinctions are occurring in the rainforests. Since 1500 CE, 784 extinctions have been documented by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.[1] However, since most extinctions are likely to go undocumented, scientists estimate that during the last century, between 20,000 and two million species have become extinct, but the precise total cannot be determined more accurately within the limits of present knowledge. Up to 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory)[2] may be the present rate of extinction based upon upper bound estimating.
106 The observed rate of extinction has accelerated dramatically in the last 50 years. There is no general agreement on whether to consider more recent extinctions as a distinct event or merely part of a single escalating process. Only during these most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses. Overall, the Holocene extinction event is most significantly characterized by the presence of man-made driving factors and its very short geological timescale (tens to thousands of years) compared to most other extinction events.
107 Slash and Burn Agriculture
108 Slash and Burn Agriculture
109 Slash and Burn Agriculture
110 Slash and Burn Agriculture
111 Slash and Burn Agriculture
112 Slash and Burn Agriculture
113 Deforestation U.S. ethanol may drive Amazon deforestation (5/17/2007) Ethanol production in the United States may be contributing to deforestation in the Brazilian rainforest said a leading expert on the Amazon. Dr. Daniel Nepstad of the Woods Hole Research Center said the growing demand for corn ethanol means that more corn and less soy is being planted in the United States. Brazil, the world's largest producer of soybeans, is more than making up for shortfall, by clearing new land for soy cultivation. While only a fraction of this cultivation currently occurs in the Amazon rainforest, production in neighboring areas like the cerrado grassland helps drive deforestation by displacing small farmers and cattle producers, who then clear rainforest land for subsistence agriculture and pasture.
114 Slash and Burn Agriculture We have met the enemy, and (s)he is us
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