Chapter 2: Atomic Theory
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1 Chapter 2: Atomic Theory all things are made of atoms - little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into each other (Richard Feynman, Six Easy Pieces, 1963)
2 500 BC: Democritus verses Aristotle Democritus: reality is atoms and empty space Aristotle: matter is infinitely divisible Neither were experimentalists - conclusions based on theory atomos = indivisible
3 John Dalton > 200,000 weather observations over 46 consecutive years Accepted views of Democritus Proposed symbols for elements Proposed modern atomic theory
4
5 Why was Dalton sure that atoms were real? Elements couldn t be broken down, indivisible atoms Elements combined in whole number ratios 2H:O, H 2 O Brownian motion - random motion of pollen grains on water Elements combined in more than 1 set of proportions
6 Dalton s Atomic Theory (1806) & All matter is composed of atoms & Atoms cannot be created or destroyed & Atoms of a given element are all the same & Atoms of different elements are different & Atoms cannot be changed into different atoms
7 We now know Dalton s ideas were not entirely correct atoms are divisible atoms can be created atoms of a given element can be different atoms can be changed into other atoms
8 Scanning Tunneling Microscope Rohrer & Binnig (1981) Sharp probe (<10-9 m) scans sample, map of surface STM can move atoms about
9 Inside the atom Electron Proton Neutron Nucleus
10 William Crookes ( ) Current passed through 2 electrodes Positive electrode = anode Negative electrode = cathode Tube sealed and evacuated Glows - cathode rays
11 What were the cathode rays? Matter (particles) or energy (light)?
12 J.J. Thomson refined previous experiments and designed new ones to uncover the true nature of these mysterious cathode rays What was Thomson s major discovery?
13 J.J. Thomson Showed that the cathode rays could bend in an electric field. Attracted to a positive field, repelled by a negative field.
14 Thomson s conclusions (1897) Ø Cathode rays are charged particles, called corpuscles. Ù Corpuscles are constituents of the atom.
15 Proposed (1904) initial model of atom A sphere full of positive substance mixed with negative electrons "like the raisins in a cake"
16 1891: "electron" - coined by G. Johnstone Stoney 1897: George Fitzgerald suggested renaming corpuscles
17 What is a practical application for the Crookes Tube?
18 How could atoms be neutral and be composed of only negative particles? The search for positive particles was on!
19 Discovery was a gradual process, normally credited to Ernest Rutherford ( ) after he discovered the nucleus (1911)
20 Rutherford Born Brightwater, NZ Studied Nelson/Canterbury Colleges 150/year scholarship Cavendish Lab Recent discoveries: electrons, X-rays, radioactivity
21 Rutherford Worked in Thomson s lab Discovered alpha and beta rays Professor, McGill University, 1898 Tested Thomson's hypothesis with the Gold foil" experiment
22 The Rutherford scattering experiment Reasoned that if Thomson's model was correct then the mass of the atom was spread out throughout the atom.
23 Developed the planetary model of the atom. Protons in nucleus, electrons orbited nucleus (like planets around sun)
24 James Chadwick ( )
25 Problem with the mass of atoms Hydrogen = 1 proton + 1 electron Helium 2 protons + 2 electrons Extra mass due to...?? neutrons
26 Relative masses: protons and neutrons equal electron 1,800 times lighter Relative size: nucleus small Large hadron collider
27 Atomic & Mass Numbers Atomic number Number of p + (Z) Mass number Number of p + + number of n 0 (A) How many p + e - n 0
28 Atomic & Mass Numbers How many p + e - n 0
29 Isotopes Atoms of same element have the same number of protons, but may have different number of neutrons Gives rise to isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different masses
30
31 Periodic Table Mendeleev: 1869 shows all known elements metals: 80% non-metals: 15% metalloids: 5% metals: main group transition inner transition
32 Periodic table of elements
33 Periodic Table Groups 1-18: similar chemical/physical properties Periods 1-7: properties change regularly Special names for groups 1, 2, 17, 18
34 Molecules and Ions Molecules: 2 or more atoms bonded together can be elements or compounds can be diatomic or polyatomic Ions: atoms or molecules with + or -charge formed by gain/loss of electrons + ion = cation - ion = anion
35 Chemical Nomenclature 1. Naming inorganic compounds 2. Writing chemical formulas
36 Chemical Names and Formulas H 2 O NaCl both examples of binary compounds NaCl: salt common or traditional name sodium chloride scientific/systematic name
37 Binary Compounds 1) Two Non-metals covalent compounds electrons shared Ending of second element changed to end in -ide
38 Binary Compounds 1) Two Non-metals CO 2 þ carbon dioxide CO 2 þ carbon dioxide
39 Binary Compounds 1) Two Non-metals PCl 3 þ phosphorus trichloride PCl 3 þ phosphorus trichloride
40 Binary Compounds 1) Two Non-metals N 2 O - dinitrogen oxide N 2 O - dinitrogen oxide
41 Prefixes When it is necessary to specify the number of atoms in a formula, Greek prefixes are used Fig 2.4, page 46
42 Writing formulas from names Phosphorus pentabromide P 5 Br û PBr 5 Dichlorine heptasulfide Cl 2 S 7
43 Binary Compounds 2) Metal + Non-metal Ionic compounds electrons transferred
44 Chemical Nomenclature NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS Name the cation first Name the anion second
45 Chemical Nomenclature NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS Monoatomic cations take their name from the element name Monoatomic anions take their names from the first part of the element name and then add "-ide"
46 Chemical Nomenclature NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS Cation Name Anion Name Na + Sodium Cl - Chloride Al 3+ Aluminum O 2- Oxide
47 NaCl Sodium Chloride
48 BaCl 2 Barium chloride Note: no prefixes
49 cation + anion = neutral ionic compound
50 Name the following... Li O 2 ZnO AlCl 3 Ba N 3 2 Lithium oxide Zinc oxide Aluminum chloride Barium nitride
51 Some metal cations have fixed charge Some have variable charge
52 Fig 2.10, page 39
53 Variable charge metal ions to know: Cobalt: Co 2+ Co 3+ Iron: Fe 2+ Fe 3+ Chromium: Cr 2+ Cr 3+ Lead: Pb 2+ Pb 4+ Tin: Sn 2+ Sn 4+ Copper: Cu + Cu 2+ Gold: Au + Au 3+
54 Name the following... CuO Copper(II) oxide FeCl 3 Iron(III) chloride Cr 2 O 3 Chromium (III) oxide
55 Ammonium ion NH 4 + Won t use -ic and -ous endings
56 Total charge cation = total charge anion ZnO Zn 2+ O 2- AlCl 3 Al 3+ (Cl - ) 3 Ba 3 N 2 (Ba 2+ ) 3 (N 3- ) 2
57 Monatomic Cation Charges Gp 1: +1 Li + Na + K + Gp 2: +2 Mg 2+ Ba 2+ Ca 2+ Others: Al 3+ Zn 2+ Ag +
58 Monatomic Anion Charges Gp 17: -1 F - Cl - Br - Gp 16: -2 O 2- S 2- Gp 15: -3 N 3- P 3- Others: H -
59 NH + 4 NO - 3 SO 2-4 CO 2-3 PO 3-4 ammonium nitrate sulfate carbonate phosphate OH - hydroxide CN - cyanide C H O - acetate page 45 HCO - hydrogen carbonate 3
60 Also need to be able to name an ionic compound from its chemical formula
61 Name the following... NaOH sodium hydroxide Ca(CN) 2 calcium cyanide K 2 SO 4 Pb(CO 3 ) 2 potassium sulfate lead(iv) carbonate
62 Give formulas for the following... lithium nitrate LiNO 3 sodium sulfate Na 2 SO 4 iron(ii) carbonate FeCO 3
63 To name a compound 1. Is it ionic or covalent? 2. If ionic, does it contain a metal that can have variable charges?
64 Chemical Nomenclature ACIDS all acids contain hyrdogen They produce the hydrogen ion H + when dissolved in water
65 ACIDS Two types 1. Binary acids hydrogen + nonmetal 2. Oxoacids hydrogen + nonmetal + oxygen
66 Name the following... HCl HBr H 2 S hydrogen chloride hydrogen bromide hydrogen sulfide when added to water the hydrogen forms ions: H + ions name changes from -ide to -ic
67 HCl in water... called hydrochloric acid hydro means water
68 Name the following... H 2 SO 4 hydrogen sulfate? sulfuric acid HNO 3 nitric acid Also know: H 3 PO 4 = phosphoric acid HC 2 H 3 O 2 = acetic acid
69 Bases hydroxides carbonates oxides bicarbonates ammonia
70 Common Names dry ice baking soda marble laughing gas gypsum saltpeter
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