10/1/2017. General Chemistry CHEM 101 (3+1+0) Dr. Mohamed El-Newehy. Chapter 2. Chemistry: Atoms, Molecules and Ions
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1 General Chemistry CHEM 101 (3+1+0) Dr. Mohamed El-Newehy Chapter 2 Chemistry: Atoms, Molecules and Ions 1
2 The Structure of the Atom Dalton s Atomic Theory (1808) o Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. o Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. o A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in their creation or destruction. The Structure of the Atom Dalton s Atomic Theory (1808) o Atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. o Dalton imagined an atom that was both extremely small and indivisible. o The 1850s and extended into the twentieth century: atoms actually possess internal structure; they are made up of even smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles. o This research led to the discovery of three such particles - electrons, protons, and neutrons. 2
3 The Structure of the Atom The Electron o Radiation -theemission and transmission of energy through space in the form of waves. o One device used to investigate this phenomenon was a cathode ray tube (It is a glass tube from which most of the air has been evacuated). The Electron The Structure of the Atom When the two metal plates are connected to a high-voltage source; o The negatively charged plate, called the cathode, emits an invisible ray. o The cathode ray is drawn to the positively charged plate, called the anode, where it passes through a hole and continues traveling to the other end of the tube. o When the ray strikes the specially coated surface, it produces a strong fluorescence, or bright light. 3
4 The Electron The Structure of the Atom In some experiments, two electrically charged plates and a magnet were added to the outside of the cathode ray tube. o When the magnetic field is on and the electric field is off, the cathode ray strikes point A. o When only the electric field is on, the ray strikes point C. o When both the magnetic and the electric fields are off or when they are both on but balanced so that they cancel each other s influence, the ray strikes point B. According to electromagnetic theory, a moving charged body behaves like a magnet and can interact with electric and magnetic fields through which it passes. The Structure of the Atom The Electron o Because the cathode ray is attracted by the plate bearing positive charges and repelled by the plate bearing negative charges, it must consist of negatively charged particles. o We know these negatively charged particles as electrons. J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e - (1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) Thomson s charge/mass of e - = x 10 8 C/g 4
5 The Structure of the Atom Millikan s Experiment Measured mass of e - (1923 Nobel Prize in Physics) o Millikan examined the motion of single tiny drops of oil that picked up static charge from ions in the air. o He suspended the charged drops in air by applying an electric field and followed their motions through a microscope. e - charge = x C Thomson s charge/mass of e - = x 10 8 C/g e - mass = 9.10 x g Radioactivity The Structure of the Atom o It was suggested by Marie Curie. o Radioactivity - spontaneous emission of particles and/or radiation. o Radioactive - any element that spontaneously emits radiation. o Röntgen noticed that cathode rays caused glass and metals to emit very unusual rays. Highly energetic radiation penetrated matter, darkened covered photographic plates, and caused a variety of substances to fluoresce. These rays could not be deflected by a magnet, they could not contain charged particles as cathode rays do. Röntgen called them X rays because their nature was not known. 5
6 The Structure of the Atom Radioactivity Three types of rays are produced by the decay, or breakdown, of radioactive substances such as uranium. 1.Two of the three are deflected by oppositely charged metal plates. o Alpha ( ) rays or particles; positively charged particles, and are deflected by the positively charged plate. o Beta ( ) rays or particles; are electrons and are deflected by the negatively charged plate. 2. Gamma ( ) rays; high-energy rays. Like X rays, rays have no charge and are not affected by an external field. The Structure of the Atom The Proton and the Nucleus o By the early 1900s, two features of atoms had become clear: they contain electrons, and they are electrically neutral. o To maintain electric neutrality, an atom must contain an equal number of positive and negative charges. Thomson s Model a uniform, positive sphere of matter in which electrons are embedded like raisins in a cake. This so-called plum-pudding model was the accepted theory for a number of years. 6
7 The Structure of the Atom The Proton and the Nucleus Rutherford s Experiment (1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry) particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 10 7 m/s (~5% speed of light) 1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus 2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-) 3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e - (1.67 x g) The Structure of the Atom The Proton and the Nucleus Rutherford s Model of the Atom o Most of the atom must be empty space. This explains why the majority of a particles passed through the gold foil with little or no deflection. o The atom s positive charges, are all concentrated in the nucleus, which is a dense central core within the atom. o Whenever an particle came close to a nucleus in the scattering experiment, a large repulsive force and therefore a large deflection. o The positively charged particles in the nucleus are called protons. atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x m nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10 3 pm = 5 x m 7
8 The Structure of the Atom The Neutron Chadwick s Experiment (1932) (1935 Noble Prize in Physics) o When a thin sheet of beryllium was bombarded with a particles, a very high-energy radiation similar to rays was emitted by the metal. o Later experiments showed that the rays actually consisted of a third type of subatomic particles, which Chadwick named neutrons, electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of protons. H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p mass He/mass H should = 2 measured mass He/mass H = 4 neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0) n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x g The Neutron The Structure of the Atom mass p mass n 1840 x mass e - 8
9 Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei Mass Number Atomic Number 1 H 2 A ZX 1 1H (D) 1H (T) U 92 U 235 Element Symbol hydrogen deuterium tritium Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes The Isotopes of Hydrogen 9
10 Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes 14 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C? 6 protons, 8 (14-6) neutrons, 6 electrons 11 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C? 6 protons, 5 (11-6) neutrons, 6 electrons Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes 10
11 The Periodic Table Alkali Metal Alkali Earth Metal Period Group Halogen Noble Gas The Periodic Table Chemistry In Action Natural abundance of elements in Earth s crust Natural abundance of elements in human body 11
12 Molécules and Ions o A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces. H 2 H 2 O NH 3 CH 4 o A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms H 2, N 2, O 2, Br 2, HCl, CO diatomic elements o A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms O 3, H 2 O, NH 3, CH 4 Molécules and Ions o An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge. cation ion with a positive charge If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a cation. Na 11 protons 11 electrons Na + 11 protons 10 electrons anion ion with a negative charge If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion. Cl 17 protons 17 electrons Cl - 17 protons 18 electrons 12
13 Molécules and Ions o A monatomic ion contains only one atom Na +, Cl -, Ca 2+, O 2-, Al 3+, N 3- o A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom OH -, CN -, NH 4+, NO 3 - Molécules and Ions Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table 13
14 Molécules and Ions How many protons and electrons are in Al? 13 protons, 10 (13 3) electrons 3+ How many protons and electrons are in Se? 34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons Chemical Formulas 14
15 Chemical Formulas o A molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance o An empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance molecular H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 O 3 empirical H 2 O CH 2 O O N 2 H 4 NH 2 o An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element. Oxygen (O 2 ) and ozone (O 3 ) are allotropes of oxygen. diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. Chemical Formulas o Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations and an anions The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in each formula unit must equal zero The ionic compound NaCl 15
16 Chemical Formulas The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds. Chemical Formulas o If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically different, we apply the following rule to make the formula electrically neutral: The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to the charge on the cation. Aluminum Oxide. The cation is Al 3+ and the oxygen anion is O 2-. The sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0. Thus, the formula for aluminum oxide is Al2O3. 16
17 Chemical Formulas Formula of Ionic Compounds 2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6 Al 2 O 3 Al 3+ O 2-1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2 CaBr 2 Ca 2+ Br - 1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2 Na 2 CO 3 Na + CO 2-3 Chemical Formulas 17
18 o Ionic Compounds Often a metal + nonmetal Anion (nonmetal), add ide to element name BaCl 2 K 2 O Mg(OH) 2 KNO 3 barium chloride potassium oxide magnesium hydroxide potassium nitrate o Transition metal ionic compounds indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals FeCl 2 2 Cl - -2 so Fe is +2 iron(ii) chloride FeCl 3 3 Cl - -3 so Fe is +3 iron(iii) chloride Cr 2 S 3 3 S -2-6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(iii) sulfide 18
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21 Molecular compounds They are usually composed of nonmetallic elements. Many molecular compounds are binary compounds. Naming binary molecular compounds is similar to naming binary ionic compounds. Weplacethenameofthefirstelementintheformulafirst,andthe second element is named by adding -ide to the root of the element name. HCl HBr SiC hydrogen chloride hydrogen bromide silicon carbide Molecular compounds If more than one compound can be formed from the same elements, use prefixes to indicate number of each kind of atom 21
22 Molecular compounds HI NF 3 SO 2 N 2 Cl 4 NO 2 N 2 O hydrogen iodide nitrogen trifluoride sulfur dioxide dinitrogen tetrachloride nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen monoxide Molecular compounds Notes in naming compounds with prefixes: o The prefix mono- may be omitted for the first element. For example, PCl 3 is named phosphorus trichloride, not monophosphorus trichloride. o For oxides, the ending a in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For example, N 2 O 4 may be called dinitrogen tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide. 22
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24 Naming Acids Acids and Bases o An acid can be defined as a substance that yields hydrogen ions (H + ) when dissolved in water. For example: HCl gas and HCl in water o Pure substance, hydrogen chloride o Dissolved in water (H 3 O + and Cl ), hydrochloric acid o Anions whose names end in -ide form acids with a hydro- prefix and an -ic ending. HCl HCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid Naming Acids Acids and Bases 24
25 Acids and Bases Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions o An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and another element. HNO 3 nitric acid H 2 CO 3 carbonic acid H 3 PO 4 phosphoric acid Acids and Bases Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions o The formulas of oxoacids are usually written with the H first, followed by the central element and then O. H 2 CO 3 HClO 3 HNO 3 H 3 PO 4 H 2 SO 4 carbonic acid chloric acid nitric acid phosphoric acid sulfuric acid 25
26 Acids and Bases Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions Two or more oxoacids have the same central atom but adifferent number of O atoms; the following rules to name these compounds. 1. Addition of one O atom to the -ic acid: The acid is called per.. -ic acid. HClO 3 chloric acid HClO 4 perchloric acid 2. Removal of one O atom from the -ic acid: The acid is called -ous acid. HNO 3 nitric acid HNO 2 nitrous acid 3. Removal of two O atoms from the -ic acid: Theacidiscalled hypo... -ous acid. HBrO 3 Bromic acid HBrO hypobromous acid. Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions o The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of oxoacids, are as follows: 1. When all the H ions are removed from the -ic acid, the anion s name ends with -ate. 2. When all the H ions are removed from the -ous acid, the anion s name ends with -ite. 3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all the hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate the number of H ions present. For example: H 3 PO 4 phosphoric acid H 2 PO - 4 dihydrogen phosphate HPO 2-4 hydrogen phosphate PO 3-4 phosphate 26
27 Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions 27
28 Naming Bases Acids and Bases o A base can be defined as a substance that yields hydroxide ions (OH - ) when dissolved in water. NaOH KOH Ba(OH) 2 sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide barium hydroxide 28
29 o Hydrates are compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to them. BaCl 2 2H 2 O LiCl H 2 O MgSO 4 7H 2 O Sr(NO 3 ) 2 4H 2 O barium chloride dihydrate lithium chloride monohydrate magnesium sulfate heptahydrate strontium nitrate tetrahydrate CuSO 4 5H 2 O CuSO 4 Familiar Inorganic Compounds 29
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