Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight

Transcription

1 Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones Chapter 0 Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight Fourth Edition Fundamentals (Part I) A and B Organzied by Tarzan, FTS( 方泰山教授 ) Copyright 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang

2 Introduction and Orientation Discipline, Center of Science: 2 Directions 1. Physics: Atoms and Molecules Chemistry 2. Biology: Life

3 Chemistry, Technology and Society: Fig.1 Stone Age (Minerals) Bronze Age (Cu + Sn) Iron Age (Fe) 4 Bronze swords date from 1250 to 850 BCE A collection in Naturhistoricsches Museum, Vienna Liptau-type sword a tongue-shaped sword an antenna-type sword a short sword

4 Fig.2. Nature Science Cold weather triggers chemical processes that reduce the amount of the gree chlorophyll in leaves, aoolwing the colors of various other Pigments to show.

5 Fig.3. When magnsium burns in air, it gives off a lot of heat and light. The gray-white powdery product looks like smoke.

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7 Fig.5 Chemistry: A Science at Three Levels

8 How Science Is Done Fig.6. A summary of the principal activities that constitute a common version of the scientific mehtod. At each stage, the crucial activity is experiment and its comparison with the idea proposed.

9 Fig.7. Scientific research today often requires sophisticated equipment and computers. This chemist is using an Auger electron spectrrometer to probe the surface of a crystal. The data collected will allow the chemist to determine which elecments are present in the surface

10 (The Branches of )Chemistry Organic.. Inorganic.. Analytical.. Physical.. Practical (Experimental) Bio (logical).. Medicinal.. Computational.. Theoretical.. Molecular Biology Material Science Nanotechnology. Sustainable Environmental.. Green Chemisty How to Master Chemistry?

11 Mastering Chemistry(Bases) A. Matter and Energy B. Elements and Atoms C. Compounds D. The Nomenclature of Compounds E. Moles and Molar Masses F. Moles and Molar Masses G. Determination of Chemical Formulas H. Mixtures and Solutions I. Chemical Equations J. Aqueous Solutions and Precipitation K. Redox Reactions L. Reaction Stoichiometry M. Limiting Reactants

12 A. Matter and Energy (Physical Change: Pure Substance) Solid phase Liquid phase Gas phase Fig.A.1. A molecule representation of the three states of matter. In each case, the spsheres represent particles that may be atoms, molecules or ions

13 Solution: Homogeneous Mixture Extensive (V, M,) vs. Intensive (T, P) For example: PV=nRT Fig.A.2 Mass is an extensive property, but temperature is intensive. These two samples of iron(ii) sulfate solution were taken from the same well-mixed supply; they have different masses but the same temperature.

14 Fig.A.3 精 and 準 A Representation of Measurements that are (a) Precise and Accurate (b) Precise but Inaccurate (c) Imprecise but Accurate (d) Both Imprecise and Inaccurate

15 Example A.1: Converting Unit 1,7 qt =? L L L 1.6 L 1,7 qt 1 qt 1 qt Conversion factor (Appendix 1 B) = L 1 qt

16 Example A.2: Calculating the volume of a sample 5.0 g silver solid =? cm Solution: V= m / V = 5.0g / / g cm =0.48 cm 3 / / / 3-3

17 Force and Work Fig.A.4 When a force acts along the direction of travel, the speed (the magnitude of the velocity) changes, but the direction of motion does not. (b) The direction of travel can be changed Without affecting the speed if the force is applied in an appropriate direction. Both changes in velocity correspond to acceleration.

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19 Chemical Change and Energy: Fig.A.5 When bromine is poured on red phosphorus, a chemical change takes place in which a lot of energy is released as heat and light.

20 Fig.A.6 The energy required To raise the book that you are now reading from floor to tabletop is approximately 14 J. The same energy would be released if the book fell fro tabletop to floor.

21 Fig.A.7 The potential energy of a mass m n a gravitational field is proportional to its height h above a point (the floor), which is taken to the correspond to zero potential energy.

22 Example A.3: Calculating Kinetic Energy How much energy does it take to accelerate a person and a bicycle of total - 1mass 75 kg to 20 mph (8.9 m. s -1), starting from rest and ignoring friction and wind resistance? Solution: Ek = ½ mv 2 = ½ (75 kg) x ( 8.9 m. S ) = 3.0 kj Example A.4: Calculating the Gravitational Potential Energy Someone of mass 65 kg walks up a flight of stairs between two floors of a building that are separated by 3.0 m. What is the change in potential energy of the person? Solution: Ep = mgh -2 = (65 kg) x (9.81 m. S ) x (3.0 m) = 1.9 kj -1 2

23 Fig.A.8 the variation of the Coulomb potential energy of two opposite charge (one represented by the red circle, the other by the green circle) with their separation. Notice that the potential energy decreases as the charge approach each other.

24 Fig.A.9 An electromagnetic field oscillates in time and space. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric field. The length of an arrow at any point represents the strength of the field at that point. And it orientation denotes its direction. Both fields are perpendicular in the direction of travel of the radiation.

25 Fig.A.10 Kinetic energy (represented by the height of the light green bar) are interconvertable, but their sum ( the total height of the bar) is a constant in the absence of external influences, such as air resistance. A ball through up from ground loses kinetic energy as it slows, but gains potential energy. The reverse happens as it falls back to Earth.

26 B. Elements and Atoms Fig.B.1 Samples of common elements. Clockwise from the Red-brown liquid Mercury and the Solids iodine, Cadmium, Red phosphorus, and copper

27 B.1 Atoms Fig.B.2 John Dalton ( ), the English schoolteacher who use experimental measurements to argue that matter consists of atoms. The atoms of an element are not all exactly the same, because they can differ slightly in mass. (B.3 isotopes)

28 Fig.B.3 Individual atoms can be seen as bumps on the surface of a solid by the technique called scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). This is of silicon.

29 B.2 The Nuclear Model will discuss in Chater 1 (Fig.1.1 Joseph John Thomson(1856~1949), With the apparatus that he used to discover the electron)

30 (Fig.1.2 The apparatus used by Thomson to investigate the properties of electrons. An electric field is set up between the two plates and a magnetic field is applied Perpendicular to the electric field.)

31 (P.2 ) Fig.1.3 A schematic diagram of Milikan s oil-drop Experiment. Oil is sprayed as a fine mist into a chamber containing a charged gas, and the location of an oil droplet is monitored by suing a microscope. Charged particles (ions) are generated in the gas by exposing it to x- ray. The fall of the charged droplet is balanced by the electric field.

32 P.4 Fig.1.4 Ernest Rutherford (1871~ 1937), who was responsible for many discoveries about the structure of the atom and its nucleus.

33 P.3 Fig.1.1 Part of the experimental arrangement used by Geiger and Marsden. The α particles came from a sample of the radioactive gas radon. They were directed through a hole into a cylindrical chamber with a zinc sulfide coating on the inside. The α particles struck the platinum foil mounted inside the cylinder, and their deflections were measured by observing flashes of light (scintillations) where they struck the screen. About 1 in α particles was deflected through very large angles; most went through the thin foil with almost no deflection.

34 Fig.B.4 Think of a fly at the center of this stadium: that is the relative size of the Nucleus of an atom if the atom were magnified to the size of the stadium.

35 微粒 ( 腦力子的波動性質

36 2004 諾貝爾物理獎 : 發現夸克漸近自由美三學者共獲殊榮 (David J. Gross (UC,Santa Barbara), Frank Wilczek(MIT) and H. David Politzer(CIT)) 一九七二年, 年方卅一歲的普林斯頓大學教授葛羅斯決定要以數學方法挑戰這個難題, 他找來正在攻讀博士學位的研究生威爾切克, 師徒兩人從 楊 - 密爾斯規範場論 著手, 經過一番抽絲剝繭的仔細計算, 終於發現夸克獨樹一格的 漸近自由 性質 另一方面, 當時在哈佛大學攻讀博士的波利徹也藉由類似的方法, 獲致相同的成果 根據葛羅斯三人的理論, 當夸克 (quirk) 越靠近, 彼此的作用力越小, 行逕類似自由粒子 ; 然而當夸克彼此越遠離, 交互作用就越強大, 反而會綁在一起, 無法成為自由粒子, 形成所謂的 夸克幽禁 現象, 夸克永遠是三個一組以質子或中子的形態存在 for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"

37 The Standard Model and the four forces of Nature

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39 B.3 Isotopes Fig.B.5 A mass spectrometer is used to measure the masses of atoms As the strength of the magnetic field is changed, the path of the accelerated ions moves from A to C. When the path is at B, the ion Detector sends a signal to the recorder The mass of the ion is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field needed to move the beam into position.

40 Fig.B.6 The mass spectrum of neon The location of the peaks tell us the relative asses of the atoms, and the te nsties tel us the relative numbers of atoms having each mass.

41 Fig.B.7 The nuclei o different isotopes of the same element hve the same number of protons but different numbe of neutrons. These three diagrams show the composition of the nuclei of the three isotpes of neon. On this scale, the atom itself would be about 1 km in diameter These diagrams make no attempt to show how the protons and neutrons are arranged inside the nucleus.

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43 B.4 The Organization of the Elements Fig.B.8 The structure of the periodic table, showing the names of some regions and groups. The groups are the vertical colums, numered 1 through 18 The periods are the horizontal rows, numbered 1 through 7(period 1 is the to row hydrogen and helium and is ot numbered n the figure) The main-group elements are those in Groups 1,2,and 13 through 18, together with hydrogen. Some versions of the table use different notations for groups, as in Groups III through VIII shown here We use both notations for Groups 13 through 18.

44 Fig.B.9 The alkali metals eact with water, producing gaseous hydrogen and heat. Potassium, as shown here, reacts vigorously, producing so much heat that the hydrogen produced is ignited.

45 Fig.B.10 The halogens are colored elements. From left to right, chlorine is a yellow-green gas, bromine is a red-brown iquid (its vapor fills the flask), and iodine is a dark purple-black solid (note the smal crystals)

46 Fig.B.11 All metals can be deformed by hammering into a shet so thin that light can pass through it. Here, it is possible to see the light of a flame through the sheet of gold.

47 Fig.B.12 The locatin of the seven elements commonly regarded as metalloid : these elements have characterstic of both metals and nonmetas. Other elements, notably beryllium and bismuth, are sometines included in the classificantion. Boron (B), although not resembling a metal in appearance, is included because it resembles silicon (Si) chemically.

48 C. Compounds

49 Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones Chapter 0 Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight Fourth Edition Fundamentals (Part II):C,D,E and F Copyright 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang

50 C. Compounds C.1 What are compounds? Compounds are combinations of elements in which the atoms of the different elements are present in a characteristic, constant ratio. A compound is classified as molecular if it consists of molecules and as ionic if it consists of ionic if it consists of ions.

51 C.2 Molecules and Molecular compounds

52 Figure C.2 Representative of an ethanol molecule : (a) space-filling, (b) ball-and-stick

53 Other kinds of images to depict molecular structure The tube structure Density isosurface The tube structure and Density isosurface

54 Electrostatic potential isosurface Elpot surface: redtint (high,-) --- blue-tint(low, +) A molecular formula shows the composition of a molecule in terms of the numbers of atoms of each element present. Different styles of molecular models are used to emphasize different molecular characteristics

55 C.3 Ions and Ionic compounds

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60 Metallic elements typically form cations, and nonmetallic elements typically form anions; the charge of a monatomic ion is related to its group in the periodic table

61 D. The Nomenclature of Compounds D.1 Names of Cations : The name of a monatomic cation is the name of the Elements that can form more than one type of cation, the oxidation number, A Roman numeral indicating the charge, is included. D.2 Names of Anions: Names of monatomic anions end in ide. Oxoanions are anions that contains oxygen. The suffix ate indicates a greater number of oxygen atoms than the Suffixe ite in the same series of oxoanions.

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65 D.3 Names of Ionic Compounds Ionic compounds are named by starting with the name of the cation (with its oxidation number if more than one charge is possible). Followed by the name of the anion; hydrates are named by adding the word hydrate, preceded by a Greek prefix indicating the number of water molecules in the formula unit.

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67 D.4 Names of Inorganic Molecular Compounds

68 D.5 Names of Some Common Organic Compounds

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77 E. Moles and Molar Masses E1. The Mole

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80 E.2. Molar Mass (M)

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85 F Determination of Chemical formula Figure F.1 The research vessel Alpha Helix is used by chemists at the University Of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to search for marine organisms that contain compounds of medicinal value. Compounds found to have antifungal or antiviral properties are then subject to the kinds of analyses described in this section

86 F.1 F.1 Mass Percentage Composition (%) F.2 Determining Empirical Formulas F.3 Determining Molecular Formulas

87 G Mixture and Solutions

88 Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones Chapter 0 Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight Fourth Edition Fundamentals (Part III) G to M Copyright 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang

89 G Mixture and Solutions

90 G.1 Classifying Mixture

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94 G.2 Separation Techniques

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97 G.3. Molarity (M)

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101 H. Chemical Equations H.1. Symbolizing Chemical Equations

102 H.2 Balancing Chemical Equations

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104 I. Aqueous Solutions and Precipitation

105 I.1 Electrolytes

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108 I.2 Precipitation Reaction I.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Reaction (a) (b)

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110 I.4 Putting Precipitation to work

111 J. Acids and Bases : J.1 Acids and bases in Aqueous Solution

112 J.2 Strong and Weak acids and Bases Arrhenius acids H + and bases (OH--) BrØnsted-LØwry

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116 J.3 Neutralization

117 K. Redox Reaction K.1 Oxidation and Reduction

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119 K.2 Oxidation and Reduction: keeping Track of Electrons

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121 K.3 Oxiditizing and Reducing Agents

122 K.4 Balancing Simple Bedox Equation

123 L. Reaction Stoichiometry Stoichiometry

124 L.1 :Stoichiometry: Mole- to Mole Predictions

125 L.2 :Stoichiometry: Mass- to Mass Predictions

126 L.3 :Volumetric Analysis

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129 Example L.2 Sample exercise: Determining the molarity of an oxalic acid by titration M1 Reaction yield M2 The Limits of Reaction M3 Combustion Analysis

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